Adam

Etymology and linguistic usage

The Hebrew word adam is used in the Hebrew Bible both as a common noun and as a proper personal name.^[1] As a noun, it carries a collective sense signifying humanity or mankind, an individual sense meaning a human being, and a gendered sense designating a man.^[1][4][5][6] In the earliest chapters of the Book of Genesis, the term regularly appears with the definite article as ha-adam, meaning the human or the earthling, before gradually taking on the role of a proper noun without an article in Genesis 4:25 and 5:3.^{[7][8][9][10]} In other Northwest Semitic languages, such as Phoenician and Ugaritic, the root adm functions with the equivalent generic meaning of humankind or mankind, and in Ugaritic myth the supreme deity El bears the epithet ab adm, meaning father of mankind.^[4][11]

The biblical text draws a direct literary and thematic parallel between the noun adam and the feminine noun adamah, which denotes arable soil or ground.^{[12][13][14][15]} This connection highlights human physical origin from the dust and human eventual return to the soil upon physical death.^[12][13][15] Scholars generally view this connection as an evocative assonance and paronomasia rather than a strict historical derivation, noting that in Hebrew noun morphology simpler root forms normally generate more complex ones, suggesting that adamah derives linguistically from adam rather than the reverse.^[14][16] In ancient Akkadian, related roots appear in adamu, denoting blood, and adamatu, meaning dark earth or black blood, while in Epigraphic South Arabian, the term denotes vassals or subjects, and names like Abd Adam suggest the possible ancient veneration of a deity by that title.^[4][11]

Another prominent etymological hypothesis connects the name adam to the Semitic triliteral root aleph-dalet-mem, denoting the color red or reddish-brown.^{[3][4][17][18]} In antiquity, Flavius Josephus recorded in his Antiquities of the Jews that the first human was named Adam because he was fashioned from red earth, which he termed the true virgin soil.^[19] In Christian and Jewish rabbinic commentary, this link has also been associated with the redness of human blood and skin flesh.^{[3][4][17][20][21]} Modern assyriological studies note that the personal name Adamu appears in the Assyrian King List as an early ruler, demonstrating that the name existed as a masculine personal name in Mesopotamia prior to its usage in Genesis.^[22][23]

In Islamic scholarship, various linguistic explanations have been proposed regarding the origin of the name Adam. In classical Quranic commentaries, such as those of al-Tabari, al-Baidawi, al-Baghawi, and the Tafsir al-Jalalayn, scholars linked the name to the surface of the earth, called adeem al-ard, or to dark clay and black mud, known in the Quran as ham-a masnun.^[24][25][26] Lexicographers including Abu Mansur al-Tha'alibi, Ibn al-Athir, and Ibn Manzur recorded that in classical Arabic lexicography, the descriptive word adam denotes an individual with a deep, dark brown complexion, exceeding the shade called asmar.^[25]

Hebrew Bible narrative

The narrative of Adam in the Hebrew Bible is primarily concentrated in the first five chapters of the Book of Genesis.^{[1][3][27][28]} The text contains two distinct and complementary accounts of creation that present the origins of the world and humanity from different narrative perspectives.^{[1][29][30][31]} Outside Genesis, Adam is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible only at the beginning of the Books of Chronicles, where his name stands at the head of the genealogical list of Israel's patriarchal ancestry.^[32][33][34]

Creation accounts

In the first creation narrative, spanning Genesis 1:1 to 2:3, the creation of humanity takes place on the sixth day as the culmination of the cosmic creative acts of God, referred to as Elohim.^{[3][28][30][35][36]} Elohim declares, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness, and creates humanity male and female simultaneously.^{[28][30][35][36][37]} God blesses them, commanding them to be fruitful, multiply, fill the earth, and exercise dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, and every living creeping thing.^{[30][35][36][38]} In this account, the diet assigned to both humanity and animals consists entirely of seed-bearing plants and tree fruits.^[35][36]

The second creation account, beginning at Genesis 2:4, employs the divine name Yahweh Elohim and opens on an earth where no shrub or plant had yet sprung up because Yahweh Elohim had not sent rain and there was no human to cultivate the soil.^{[28][39][40][41]} Yahweh Elohim forms man, ha-adam, from the dust of the ground, breathes into his nostrils the breath of life, and man becomes a living being.^{[28][39][40][41][42]} God then plants a garden eastward in Eden, placing the man there to cultivate and watch over it.^[39][42] In the midst of the garden grow the Tree of Life and the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and God commands the man that he may freely eat of every tree except the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, warning that on the day he eats of it he will surely die.^[3][42]

Observing that it is not good for the man to be alone, Yahweh Elohim forms beasts of the field and birds of the air from the ground and brings them to the man to see what he would name them.^{[41][42][43][44]} Adam gives names to all livestock, birds, and wild beasts, but no suitable companion or helper is found among them.^[42][43][44] God then causes a deep sleep to fall upon the man, takes one of his ribs or sides (tsela), closes up the place with flesh, and builds from it a woman.^[42][43][45] Upon awakening, Adam greets her, declaring her to be bone of his bones and flesh of his flesh, and states that she shall be called woman (ishah) because she was taken out of man (ish).^[42][45]

The Fall and expulsion

Genesis 3 details the transgression of the divine command and the subsequent expulsion from Eden.^{[3][41][46][47]} The serpent, described as more cunning than any other wild animal, engages the woman in conversation and questions God's restriction regarding the garden trees.^[46][47] When the woman explains that eating the fruit of the tree in the midst of the garden brings death, the serpent contradicts this, asserting that their eyes will be opened and they will become like divine beings, knowing good and evil. Seeing that the tree is good for food, pleasing to the eyes, and desirable for gaining wisdom, the woman eats its fruit and gives some to her husband, who also eats.^[3][46][47]

Immediately their eyes are opened, and becoming conscious of their nakedness, they sew fig leaves together to make loin coverings.^[46][47] Hearing the sound of Yahweh Elohim walking in the garden in the cool of the day, they hide among the trees.^[46][47] God calls out to the man, asking where he is, and Adam replies that he hid in fear because he was naked.^[46][47][48] When questioned whether he had eaten from the forbidden tree, Adam casts the blame upon the woman whom God gave to be with him, and she in turn attributes the deed to the deception of the serpent.^[46][47][49]

God pronounces judgments upon the three parties: the serpent is cursed above all beasts to crawl on its belly and eat dust, with ongoing enmity established between its seed and the woman's seed; the woman is sentenced to pain in childbearing and marital subordination; and the ground is cursed on Adam's account, condemning him to sorrowful, sweaty toil among thorns and thistles to produce food until he returns to the ground.^[46][47] Genesis 3:19 formulates this mortal sentence in a chiastic structure: For dust you are, and to dust you shall return.^[50][51][52] Adam names his wife Eve (Hawwah), meaning life or living, because she was to be the mother of all living.^[47][53] God makes garments of animal skins for them, remarks that man has become like one of us in knowing good and evil, and expels the couple from Eden lest they take fruit from the Tree of Life and live forever.^[3][46][47] Cherubim and a flaming, revolving sword are placed at the east of Eden to guard the way to the Tree of Life.^[47]

Post-Edenic life and death

Outside the garden, Adam and Eve begin a life of agricultural labor and reproduction.^[3][46][54] Eve conceives and gives birth to their firstborn son, Cain, followed by Abel.^[3][54] Cain becomes a worker of the soil while Abel becomes a keeper of flocks.^[28][54] After God accepts Abel's offering of the firstlings of his flock but rejects Cain's crop offering, Cain slays Abel in the field, committing the first murder, and is subsequently cursed to wander as a fugitive in the land of Nod.^[28][54]

At the age of 130 years, Adam fathers another son, Seth, who is described as being in Adam's own likeness and image, replacing the murdered Abel.^{[3][54][55][56]} Through Seth's lineage, the patriarchal line continues down to Noah, whose household survives the global Flood that destroys all other human branches.^[54][57] Genesis 5 records that after the birth of Seth, Adam lived for another 800 years, fathering other sons and daughters whose names are not recorded in the canonical text, and died at the total age of 930 years.^[56] By the ages given in Genesis 5, Adam lived into the 56th year of Lamech, the father of Noah..

Composition and historicity

While classical tradition attributed the authorship of Genesis to Moses, modern historical-critical scholarship analyzes the creation narratives as composite literature drawing on multiple ancient literary strata.^{[29][31][58][59][60]} The documentary hypothesis attributes the first creation account in Genesis 1:1–2:3 to the Priestly source (P), characterized by formal language, liturgical structure, and cosmic scope, while the Garden of Eden narrative in Genesis 2:4b–3:24 is assigned to the Yahwist source (J), marked by anthropomorphic depictions of God and an earth-centered folk register.^[29][41][61]

The majority consensus among modern biblical scholars dates the final redaction of the Book of Genesis to the Persian period between the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.^{[27][62][63][64]} However, because the figures, genealogies, and events of Genesis 1–11 are almost entirely absent from the rest of the Hebrew Bible outside 1 Chronicles 1:1, a notable minority of scholars argues that these primeval chapters were composed or finalized significantly later, possibly in the Hellenistic period during the 3rd century BCE.^{[32][65][66][67][68]}

Comparative Ancient Near Eastern mythology

The motifs in the Genesis creation and paradise accounts share structural, thematic, and linguistic parallels with older Near Eastern mythologies.^{[69][70][71][72]} In the Mesopotamian Epic of Atrahasis, dating to the early second millennium BCE, humans are fashioned from clay mingled with the flesh and blood of a slain god to relieve the lesser deities from the exhausting physical toil of agriculture and canal digging.^[73][74][75] In the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish, dating to around 1700 BCE, humanity is similarly created from the blood of the rebellious god Kingu to serve the gods and maintain the cosmic order.^[17][73]

Sumerian literature preserves related creation traditions, such as the myth of Enki and Ninmah recorded on cuneiform tablets, where the god Enki and the mother goddess Ninmah fashion humanity from clay taken from the fertile abyss to perform the agricultural labors demanded by the gods.^[74][76] Sumerian linguistic wordplay also offers an explanation for the creation of woman from a rib: in Sumerian, the cuneiform sign ti signifies both rib and to make live, an association embodied in the goddess Ninti, whose name means both the lady of the rib and the lady who makes live, a pun that does not translate directly into Semitic languages.^[43][77][78] In ancient Egyptian religion, parallel motifs appear in the Heliopolitan theology of Atum, who generates the first divine pair, and the Memphis theology of Ptah, who conceives the universe in his mind and commands it into existence through his tongue.^[79][80] Additionally, the ram-headed potter deity Khnum is depicted in the temple of Mammisi at Dendera shaping children and the first human bodies out of clay on a potter's wheel with the assistance of Satet and Anuket.^[75][81][82]

Literary scholars also observe close parallels between the primeval human figure and the Mesopotamian character Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh.^[83][84] Created from clay by the goddess Aruru in the wilderness, Enkidu lives among wild animals, grazing on vegetation and drinking beside them, until he is seduced by Shamhat, after which the beasts flee from him, he gains understanding and wisdom, puts on clothing, and enters civilized urban life.^{[83][84][85][86]} Another Mesopotamian myth, that of the sage Adapa of Eridu, tells of a wise human created by the god Ea who unintentionally rejects the food and water of eternal life offered by the sky god Anu due to Ea's deceptive advice, thereby forfeiting immortality for himself and humankind.^[71][72]

In 2014, scholars Marjo Korpel and Johannes de Moor published reconstructions of late-13th-century BCE Ugaritic clay tablets from Ras Shamra, arguing for a Canaanite creation myth that closely parallels the Garden of Eden.^{[87][88][89][90]} In their reading, the creator god El resides in a vineyard or garden on Mount Ararat alongside his consort Asherah; when the rebellious deity Horon attempts to depose El, he is cast down from the mountain, assumes the form of a great serpent, poisons the Tree of Life, and turns it into a Tree of Death.^[87][90] Adam is sent to restore the garden, but Horon bites him, causing Adam and his wife to lose their immortality, which is subsequently compensated for through sexual reproduction and progeny.^[87][90][91] However, biblical scholar John Day and other researchers have argued that this Canaanite narrative is not explicitly attested in the tablets and relies on speculative textual reconstructions.^[92]

Rabbinical Judaism

In rabbinic literature, including the Mishnah, the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds, and midrashic compilations such as Genesis Rabbah (Bereshit Rabbah), the creation and life of Adam are elaborated with extensive theological, aggadic, and mystical details.^[93][94] In Jewish tradition, Adam and Eve are viewed as the full archetype of human relationships and the paradigm of the entire human race.^[3][95][96]

Creation and the body

Midrashic accounts explain that God created humanity because He possessed angelic hosts in the heavens and animals on the earth, requiring a creature who would unite the upper and lower realms.^[93][97] To explain the plural phrasing of Genesis 1:26, Let us make man, the sages taught that God consulted His ministering angels before making human beings.^[94][98][99] Commentators like Rashi explained that God conferred with the angels to model humility and prevent jealousy, while Genesis Rabbah relates that the angels debated among themselves: Love advocated creation because humans perform acts of love, Truth opposed it because humans speak falsehood, Righteousness favored it because humans do righteous deeds, and Peace opposed it because humans are contentious.^{[100][101][102]} While the angels argued, God cast Truth to the earth and created man, declaring that the deed was already accomplished.^[101] Other midrashim explain that God consulted His attribute of Mercy, the Torah, the earth, or the souls of the righteous.^[101][103]

According to one opinion in the Talmud, God took the dust for Adam's body from Babylon, for his head from the Land of Israel, and for his other organs from the other lands..^[98] Louis Ginzberg recorded a midrash describing how God took dust from the four corners of the world in four colors: red for blood, black for the bowels, white for bones and sinews, and green for the skin.^{[104][105][106]} Adam was initially formed as a colossal, lifeless golem filling the entire earth from east to west and from earth to the firmament.^{[107][108][109][110]} Upon viewing his radiant form, the angels initially mistook him for a divine being and sought to worship him, but God cast a deep sleep upon him to demonstrate his human limitations.^{[94][111][112]} Adam possessed a body of celestial light identical to the light of the first day, and both Adam and Eve were created in the physical maturity of twenty-year-olds.^{[94][113][114][115]}

The sages of the Talmud and Midrash addressed the apparent contradiction between Genesis 1:27, which states that male and female were created together, and Genesis 2, which describes separate creations, by teaching that Adam was originally created as an androgynous being (androgynos) or a two-faced creature (du-partzufin) joined back-to-back.^{[94][107][116][117][118]} Finding that this joined state hindered walking and conversation, God divided the primordial being into two separate individuals, male and female.^{[107][116][119][120]} The word tsela, traditionally translated as rib, is interpreted in this tradition as meaning side or flank, representing the splitting of the single creature into two distinct partners.^{[107][121][122]}

In the Babylonian Talmud tractate Sanhedrin 38b, the timeline of the sixth day of creation is divided into twelve distinct hours: in the first hour Adam's dust was gathered; in the second his shape was molded; in the third his limbs were stretched; in the fourth a soul was breathed into him; in the fifth he stood on his feet; in the sixth he named the animals; in the seventh Eve was paired with him; in the eighth two went to bed and four came out (Cain and Abel were born); in the ninth he was forbidden from the tree; in the tenth he sinned; in the eleventh he was judged; and in the twelfth hour he was expelled from the garden before the Sabbath began.^[94][98] The Mishnah in tractate Sanhedrin 4:5 emphasizes human equality through Adam's solitary creation: humanity was started from a single individual to teach that whoever destroys a single life is considered to have destroyed an entire world, and whoever saves a single life is considered to have saved an entire world; so that no person can say to another, 'My father is greater than your father'; to show the greatness of God, who mints all humans with the same stamp of Adam yet none is identical; and so that the righteous cannot claim they descend from a righteous ancestor nor the wicked from a wicked one.^{[123][124][125]}

Lilith and Eve

Medieval rabbinic folklore, Aggadic midrashim, and the Alphabet of Ben Sira developed the narrative that Adam's first wife was Lilith, created like him directly from the dust.^{[119][126][127][128]} Conflict arose between them because Lilith refused to lie beneath Adam, asserting that since both were fashioned equally from earth, they were equal partners.^{[119][126][129]} When Adam refused to yield, Lilith uttered the ineffable name of God and flew away into the wilderness.^{[119][126][129]} God dispatched three angels to pursue her, but she refused to return, after which God fashioned Eve from Adam's side to be his obedient companion.^{[119][126][130]}

In post-expulsion lore, rabbinic texts record that following Abel's murder, Adam separated from Eve for 130 years.^[126][131] During this prolonged period of estrangement, Adam experienced nocturnal emissions and copulated with female spirits, fathering demons, spirits, and night monsters known as lilin, while Eve was similarly visited by male demons.^{[126][128][131]} Eventually, Adam and Eve reconciled, and Eve conceived and gave birth to their third son, Seth.^{[126][128][131]}

Transgression and the Fall

Rabbinic commentators explained that the serpent targeted Eve because Adam had heard the divine prohibition directly from God, whereas Eve received it secondhand through Adam, who had added an extra safeguard by telling her not to touch the tree.^{[132][133][134]} According to one Jewish interpretation, Eve found that nothing happened when she touched the tree, and so became convinced that Adam's order not to eat its fruit was wrong and did not come from God.. Once Eve ate the fruit and realized she was doomed to die, she gave the fruit to Adam so that she would not die alone and be replaced by another woman.^{[132][133][134]} Adam ate the fruit unaware of the full deception, and when God questioned him, God rebuked him for submitting to his wife's authority rather than leading as the head.^{[132][133][134][135][136]}

Midrashic texts suggest that Adam ate from the tree three hours before the onset of the Sabbath; had he waited until the Sabbath arrived, God would have sanctified the fruit for him to use in the Sabbath kiddush.^[137] Upon the transgression, Adam lost his gigantic cosmic proportions and his body of heavenly light was reduced to a height of one hundred cubits, allowing him to hide among the foliage of the garden.^[110][138] An Aggadic legend in the Talmud tractate Avodah Zarah 8a holds that Adam began the custom of fasting before the winter solstice and rejoicing after it, an observance that later devolved into the Roman midwinter festivals of Saturnalia and the Calends..

Death, burial, and esoteric writings

According to the Apocalypse of Moses, the Archangel Michael, along with Eve and Seth, attended Adam's death, and Adam was buried alongside his murdered son Abel near the site where he had been formed.^{[139][140][141]} Traditional Jewish belief identifies the Cave of Machpelah (the Cave of the Patriarchs) in Hebron as the resting place of Adam and Eve, where they were later joined by Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, and Jacob and Leah.^{[142][143][144][145]} The 17th-century Jewish ethical work Kav ha-Yashar and the Zohar strictly admonish against speaking ill of Adam, promising that those who speak favorably of him will be blessed with long life.^{[146][147][148]}

In Kabbalistic tradition, the creation of physical Adam was preceded by the emanation of Adam Kadmon, the primordial, transcendent spiritual human who embodies the divine light and the ten sefirot within the cosmos.^[149][150] The Sefer Raziel HaMalakh (Book of Raziel the Angel) is a collection of esoteric cosmological and magical writings that Jewish tradition claims was given to Adam by the angel Raziel to console him following his expulsion from Eden.^[151] While historical analysis dates the extant compiler of the text to the 13th century, it incorporates mystical traditions spanning from Late Antiquity, including sections entitled Ha-Malbush, the Book of Secrets, and Shi'ur Qomah.^[151]

Christianity

In Christian theology, Adam occupies a central position as the initial federal head of humanity and the primary theological counterpart to Jesus Christ.^{[3][152][153]} The narrative of Adam's creation, transgression, and fall provides the doctrinal framework for understanding the universal necessity of divine redemption through the incarnation and crucifixion of Christ.^[152][153]

Original sin and the New Adam

The doctrine of original sin, which is absent from mainstream Judaism and Islam, was introduced into Christian theology by the Apostle Paul, who drew upon Hellenistic Jewish concepts concerning the entrance of death and corruption into the world through Adam's transgression.^{[152][154][155][156][157]} In Romans 5:12–21 and 1 Corinthians 15:20–50, Paul contrasts Adam and Christ: as through one man sin entered the world, and death through sin, so through one righteous act grace and life abound to all.^{[153][155][156][158]} Christ is termed the last Adam or the second Adam, who reverses the legacy of the first parent's disobedience.^{[152][153][159]}

While Paul conceived of sin as an alien power enslaving humanity rather than a biologically transmitted inheritance, early Western church fathers, most prominently Augustine of Hippo, developed the doctrine of hereditary original guilt.^{[155][160][161][162]} Augustine located the transmission of original sin in the concupiscence of sexual reproduction and the male seed, arguing that because Adam and Eve felt shame and covered their genitals after sinning, human procreation itself conveys the ancestral stain to succeeding generations.^{[160][161][162]} Jesus Christ alone, conceived by the Holy Spirit without human semen, remained free from this hereditary contamination.^{[162][163][164]} The Eastern Church does not accept the Latin Church's doctrine of original sin, teaching only that death entered the world through Adam and Eve and that the resurrection of Jesus reopened Paradise. John of Damascus wrote that those born of Adam became like him, inheriting the curse and corruption..^[157]

Catholic theology, articulated in scholastic writings and summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, teaches that Adam and Eve were originally endowed with sanctifying grace and four preternatural gifts: immortality (freedom from death), impassibility (freedom from pain and suffering), infused knowledge (knowledge of divine truth without error), and integrity (complete harmony between bodily appetites and reason).^{[165][166][167][168]} The Fall caused the loss of these preternatural gifts and wounded human nature, introducing concupiscence, suffering, and physical death into human history.^{[167][169][170]}

Patristic interpretations and the rib myth

Patristic writers extended the typological parallel of Adam and Christ to Eve and Mary: as early as the second century, Justin Martyr and Irenaeus of Lyons designated Mary as the New Eve, whose obedience at the Annunciation untied the knot of Eve's disobedience in Eden.^[171] Irenaeus also wrote that Adam demonstrated genuine repentance by fashioning garments from coarse fig leaves rather than softer foliage to punish his body. In his Summa Theologiae, Thomas Aquinas explained that the formation of Eve from Adam's rib symbolized a mutual partnership of love: she was taken not from his head to rule over him, nor from his feet to be enslaved by him, but from his side near his heart to stand as an equal companion.^[172] Aquinas further drew a mystical parallel, noting that just as Eve was formed from the side of the sleeping Adam, so the sacraments of blood and water (the Eucharist and Baptism) flowed from the pierced side of Christ asleep on the cross to form the Church.^[172]

A widespread popular folk belief once held that men have one fewer rib than women as a physical legacy of the removal of Adam's rib.^[173] A story is sometimes told that the father of modern anatomy, Andreas Vesalius, was condemned to death by the Inquisition for explaining in his works that men and women have exactly the same number of ribs.^[173] The story was most likely invented by Andrew Dickson White in his 1896 book History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom.. The story of the condemnation has no known source earlier than 1896 and was very probably invented by White: Vesalius was never condemned by church authorities, and the idea of a missing rib was recognized as a vulgar folk misconception by Christian theologians centuries earlier.^[173] The early Christian scholar Origen, the 12th-century scholastic William of Conches, and the 16th-century Catholic theologian Cardinal Thomas Cajetan had each explicitly affirmed that the Genesis account was figurative and not a medical description of human skeletal anatomy.^[174][175]

Golgotha and the True Cross

In the 3rd century, early Christian writers including Origen, Tertullian, Basil of Caesarea, and John Chrysostom localized Adam's grave at Golgotha in Jerusalem, replacing the earlier Jewish tradition that placed his burial at the site of Solomon's Temple.^{[176][177][178][179][180]} According to this Christian legend, Golgotha (meaning the Place of the Skull) received its name because Adam's skull was buried directly beneath the site of the crucifixion.^{[152][177][178]} At the moment of Christ's death, the rocks split and Christ's redeeming blood trickled down into the earth, washing over Adam's skull and symbolically cleansing the ancestor of humankind from the stain of the Fall.^{[152][181][182]} This theological motif is reflected in traditional Christian iconography, where a skull and crossed bones are depicted beneath the base of Christ's cross.^{[152][183][184]}

The Golden Legend contains one version of the legend of the cross tree.^[185] The Slavic apocryphon Word of the Cross Wood, dated to about the 12th century, opens with material drawn from the last episode of the apocryphon of Adam and Eve, in which an angel broke three branches from the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil and gave them to Adam's son Seth..^[186] The archangel Michael refused the oil but gave Seth three seeds or twigs from the Tree of Knowledge, which Seth placed in Adam's mouth or upon his head when he was buried.^[186] From these twigs grew a great tree with three intertwined trunks; centuries later, wood harvested from this tree was used to construct the cross upon which Jesus was crucified, geographically and spiritually uniting the instrument of the Fall with the instrument of redemption.^[186]

Veneration and liturgical feasts

Although individual Old Testament figures are not designated with the title Saint in post-medieval Western Catholic usage because papal canonization procedures postdate their era, the Catholic Church recognizes the biblical patriarchs as holy figures.^{[187][188][189]} In the Roman Martyrology, 24 December, the vigil of Christmas, carries a commemoration of all the holy ancestors of Jesus Christ, which since the 2004 revision no longer names Adam and Eve individually..^[189][190] In medieval Germany and central Europe, 24 December was kept as Adam and Eve Day, celebrated with folk Paradise Plays staged around an evergreen fir tree hung with apples, and some writers have suggested that this tree contributed to the later development of the Christmas tree.^[190]

In Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Adam and Eve are explicitly venerated as saints on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers, observed on the second Sunday before Christmas, as well as on Cheese-Fare Sunday (Forgiveness Sunday), where the liturgical chants commemorate Adam's expulsion from Paradise.^{[191][192][193]} Orthodox iconography prominently features Adam and Eve in the traditional Anastasis (Harrowing of Hades) icon, which depicts the resurrected Christ smashing the gates of death and grasping Adam and Eve by their wrists to pull them up from their tombs.^{[184][191][194]}

Islam

In Islam, Adam (Arabic: Ādam) is revered as the first human being, the first Muslim (submitting to the one God), and the first prophet (nabi) of Allah.^{[195][196][197][198][199]} The Quran mentions Adam by name 25 times across numerous surahs, most prominently in al-Baqarah, al-A'raf, al-Hijr, al-Isra, Ta-Ha, and Sad.^[200][201] In Islamic honorifics, he is designated as Abu al-Bashar (the Father of Humanity) and Safiullah (the Chosen of God).^{[26][202][203]}

Creation and ensoulment

According to the Quran and Islamic hadith, God announced to the angels His intention to establish a successor or vicegerent (khalifah) on earth.^{[195][197][200][204]} The angels questioned this decision, asking whether God would place there someone who would cause corruption and shed blood while the angels praised and sanctified Him; God replied, I know that which you do not know.^{[195][197][200][205]} God then fashioned Adam's physical form from clay, dried mud (salsal), and altered black mud (ham-a masnun).^{[26][197][199][202][206]} Islamic traditions compiled by Ibn Sa'd and al-Tabari record that God sent the angels Gabriel, Michael, and Azrael to gather dust from different parts of the earth, including Mecca and Yemen; the varied soil colors (red, white, black, and yellow) account for the diversity of human skin complexions.^{[204][207][208]}

Islamic tradition holds that Adam's clay body stood as a lifeless shaped form for forty nights, or by other accounts forty years, before God gave it life.. During this period, Iblis (Satan) circled the lifeless statue, tapping it to hear it ring like pottery, entering through its mouth and exiting through its posterior, boasting that he would overcome or destroy it.^[207] When the divine breath entered the head, Adam sneezed and praised God; as the spirit reached his eyes, he saw the fruits of Paradise, and when it reached his throat, he desired food, attempting to leap toward the fruits before the spirit had even reached his legs, illustrating the Quranic verse that humanity was created hasty.^[209][210]

God endowed Adam with knowledge by teaching him the names of all things, demonstrating his intellectual capacities to the angels, who conceded their lack of knowledge.^{[197][200][211][212]} God then commanded the angels to prostrate before Adam in honor and reverence; all the angels prostrated except Iblis, who, being a jinn created from smokeless fire, proudly refused, arguing that he was superior to a creature fashioned from earthly mud.^{[195][197][200][204][213]} For this rebellious arrogance, God cursed Iblis and cast him out of Paradise, though Iblis was granted respite until the Day of Resurrection to test and deceive Adam's descendants.^{[196][197][214][215]}

Paradise, the tree, and divine forgiveness

God placed Adam and his wife, Hawwa (Eve), who according to tradition was formed from Adam's rib while he slept, in Paradise (Jannah), instructing them to enjoy its abundance but forbidding them from approaching a specific tree.^{[197][198][200][204][216]} Iblis approached them with deceitful oaths, claiming that God had forbidden the tree only to prevent them from becoming angels or gaining immortal life, and called it the Tree of Immortality (Shajarat al-Khuld).^{[197][217][218][219][220]} Both Adam and Hawwa ate from the fruit, whereupon their garments vanished, exposing their private parts, and they rushed to cover themselves with leaves of the garden.^{[197][198][202][220][221]}

In the Quranic narrative, Adam and Hawwa share equal responsibility for eating from the tree; Eve is neither portrayed as the primary temptress nor cursed with painful childbirth as punishment for her husband's sin.^{[197][198][217][220][222]} Realizing their transgression, both repented and pleaded, Our Lord, we have wronged ourselves, and if You do not forgive us and have mercy upon us, we will surely be among the losers.^{[197][220][223][224]} God accepted Adam's repentance and guided him, illustrating the core Islamic doctrine that humanity does not inherit an ontological stain of original sin; rather, every human being is born with a pure, uncorrupted disposition (fitrah), and Adam's mistake was a forgiven slip that established the pattern of human repentance.^{[197][225][226][227]}

Earthly life and prophetic mission

Following their expulsion from Paradise, Adam and Hawwa were cast down to earth.^{[197][228][229][230]} Islamic traditions in Qisas al-Anbiya record that Adam landed in India or Sarandib (Sri Lanka) upon a mountain identified as Adam's Peak, while Hawwa landed at Jiddah or in Africa.^{[196][230][231][232][233]} Adam was taught agriculture by the angel Gabriel, making farming the traditional first human profession, and wove garments for himself and his wife.^{[234][235][236]} They wandered until they reunited at Mount Arafat near Mecca, where they sought forgiveness and performed the rites of the Hajj pilgrimage.^{[196][230][231][233]} God sent down the heavenly Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad), and Adam constructed the first sanctuary of the Kaaba, which was centuries later rebuilt by Ibrahim (Abraham) and Ismail (Ishmael).^{[197][204][234][237]}

According to authentic hadiths, God created Adam with a stature of sixty cubits (approximately 30 to 35 meters) in height, and human stature has progressively decreased since his creation.^{[238][239][240]} When God displayed all future human souls to Adam, Adam noticed a shining light between the eyes of the future prophet Dawud (David) and learned that David was allotted only sixty years of life.^[241] Adam was to live one thousand years, but he gave forty of them to David, who was to have a short life; when the Angel of Death came for Adam, Adam objected that forty years of his life still remained, having forgotten that he had given them to David.^{[241][242][243][244]} In hadith traditions, Muhammad stated that Adam was shown on Friday, cast down to earth on Friday, and died on Friday.^[242][245] Tradition records that Adam died at the age of 930 or 1000 years, having seen thousands of his descendants, and was buried either on Mount Abu Qubais in Mecca, in a mountain cave in India, or in Jerusalem after Noah transported his remains across the Deluge.^{[204][234][242][246][247]}

Islamic theological debates

Islamic theologians in the school of Kalam engaged in extensive debates concerning Adam's status relative to the angels.^[248] Many scholars argued that righteous humans and prophets ultimately surpass angels in rank because humans must overcome base physical desires and demonic temptation to obey God, whereas angels lack lust and cannot sin.^[248] Other theologians debated the doctrine of prophetic infallibility (ismah), discussing whether prophets are entirely protected from minor errors before their formal calling, or whether Adam's transgression in Paradise occurred in a realm before the revelation of worldly religious law.^[217] In Shia Islam, it is held that the eating of the fruit was not a legal sin, as the Garden was an abode of trial rather than an arena of divine law and moral accountability.^[217]

Early Islamic traditions also entertained pre-Adamite concepts, holding that sentient beings such as jinns and hinns inhabited the earth long before Adam.^[249][250] Ismailis and various Sufi thinkers taught cyclical cosmologies wherein God created numerous successive Adams, each presiding over a cosmic era lasting 50,000 years.^[250] In the Ahmadiyya movement, founder Mirza Ghulam Ahmad taught that Adam was not the literal first biological human, but the first prophet sent to inaugurate spiritual revelation once human civilization had evolved across the globe, calculating that the Quranic Adam lived approximately 4,598 years before Muhammad.^[251]

Gnosticism, Mandaeism, and Manichaeism

In ancient Gnostic cosmologies discovered among the Nag Hammadi codices, the creation of Adam is interpreted within an inverted dualistic framework where material creation is viewed negatively.^[2] In the Gnostic text On the Origin of the World, Adam first appears as a primordial being born from light poured out by the aeon known as forethought, and this primordial form is called Adam of Light..^[252][253] When the material archons and their chief Demiurge, Yaldabaoth (also identified as Saklas), observe this spiritual Adam, they attempt to capture his image by modeling a physical human body from earthly clay, though their creation initially lies motionless and impotent.^{[252][253][254][255]} Gnostic accounts depict the body as a form of prison for Adam's soul; Sophia (Wisdom) transferred this soul to the Demiurge, who was tricked into blowing it into a body. In On the Origin of the World, Sophia sends her daughter Zoe, the spiritual Eve, to give the physical Adam life..^[2][252]

In the Hypostasis of the Archons, the spiritual Eve (Zoe) enters into Adam to grant him true life, and the serpent is portrayed as an instructor sent to encourage humanity to eat from the Tree of Knowledge and attain Gnosis, liberating their divine spark from the tyranny of the material creator.^[252][256] The Revelation of Adam (Apocalypse of Adam) contains Adam's prophecy about the later fate of humanity, which its creator, the Demiurge, repeatedly tries to destroy until the third coming of the Illuminator of Gnosis; Adam passes his knowledge to his son Seth, and it is handed down through the generations.. Conversely, the Second Treatise of the Great Seth presents a negative depiction of the earthly Adam, portraying him as a ridiculous figure deceived by archontic powers.^[257] In the Ophite Book of Baruch, the creator deity Elohim and the earth goddess Eden form the world, and Elohim fashions Adam from the earth, placing spirit within him, while the serpent Naas attempts to corrupt the human creation.^[258][259]

Mandaeism, the sole surviving Gnostic religious tradition, reveres Adam as the founder of the religion and its first great prophet.^{[260][261][262][263]} The Mandaean holy book, the Ginza Rabba (often referred to as the Book of Adam), recounts that the demiurge Ptahil shaped the physical body of Adam (Adam Pagria), but could not animate it until the celestial soul, Adam Kasia (the Hidden or Secret Adam), was brought down from the World of Light.^[264] Adam serves as the herald of divine knowledge (manda) and truth (kushta).^{[260][262][263]} In Mandaean liturgical tradition, the baptism of Adam is viewed as the prototypical ritual, and the Mandaean calendar reckons years from his creation as AA (After Adam), with 2021–2022 CE corresponding to 445391 AA.^{[263][265][266]}

In Manichaeism, founded by Mani in the 3rd century, Adam and Eve are depicted as offspring of dark demonic forces rather than the true God.^[267][268] According to the Manichaean creation myth detailed in the Kephalaia, the male demon Ashqalun and the female demon Namrael consumed aborted demonic fetuses that contained particles of stolen divine light, concentrated this light through sexual union, and gave birth to Adam and Eve, trapping the supreme light within mortal flesh.^[267][268] Later, Jesus the Splendor descended from the realm of light, awakened Adam from his spiritual slumber, enlightened him regarding his divine soul, and gave him the fruit of knowledge to open his eyes to the spiritual reality.^[269]

Other religious traditions

In the Druze faith, Adam is revered as the first enunciator or spokesman (natiq), who was sent to transmit the foundational principles of monotheism (tawhid) to a broad audience.^{[270][271][272]} He is counted among the seven major prophetic spokesmen who appeared across different cycles of world history, and in Druze esoteric philosophy, Adam and Eve represent complementary cosmic forces: Adam embodies the Universal Mind (al-Aql al-Kulli) and Eve represents the Universal Soul (al-Nafs al-Kulliyyah).^[273]

In Yazidism, an indigenous syncretic religion of northern Iraq, the Yazidis trace their unique lineage exclusively to Adam, distinguishing themselves from the rest of humanity who descend from both Adam and Eve.^{[274][275][276]} According to Yazidi sacred tradition, Adam and Eve disputed over who possessed the true power to generate offspring without a mate, and each placed their seed into separate earthenware jars; when the jars were opened nine months later, Eve's jar contained only worms and decay, whereas Adam's jar contained a beautiful male child named Shahid bin Jarr.^[276] The Yazidi people consider themselves the pure descendants of Shahid bin Jarr, while other human populations descend from the subsequent children born of Adam and Eve.^[276]

In the Baháʼí Faith, Adam is seen as the earliest Manifestation of God in known history, without excluding the possibility of forgotten predecessors.^[277] He began the Adamic cycle 6,000 years ago, a succession of prophets that reached Muhammad and continued with the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh..^{[278][279][280]} The Baháʼí teachings, articulated by 'Abdu'l-Bahá, explain that the Genesis account of Adam and Eve must be interpreted allegorically: Adam symbolizes the heavenly spirit, Eve represents the human soul, the Tree of Knowledge represents the material realm, and the serpent symbolizes earthly attachment.^{[281][282][283][284][285]} Baháʼís hold that Adam is the father of all people and the source of humanity's physical life, while Christ is the source of its spiritual life..^[281]

In the theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism), Adam is identified as the mortal incarnation of the Archangel Michael.^{[286][287][288]} In his premortal existence, Michael fought against Lucifer in the War in Heaven and assisted Jehovah in creating the earth.^[287][288] Following his mortal life, Joseph Smith stated that Adam lived and gathered his posterity in a valley named Adam-ondi-Ahman (located in modern Daviess County, Missouri).^[287] In Latter-day Saint scripture, the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 2:22–25) and the Book of Moses (5:11), the Fall from Eden is presented as a necessary step that led to the development of humanity rather than to its ruin..

Philosophical and theological commentary

The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria presented an allegorical, Platonizing reading of the Genesis creation accounts in his treatise On the Creation of the World According to Moses.^[289][290] Philo distinguished between the two creations: the first, heavenly human created in the image of God was incorporeal, sexless, and an idea of the mind, whereas the second, earthly human formed from dust was a physical composite of soul and perishable body.^[290] In Philo's allegory, Adam represents the rational intellect (nous), Eve represents physical sensation (aisthesis), and the serpent symbolizes bodily pleasure (hedone), which seduces the intellect through the senses.^[289]

In medieval Jewish philosophy, Maimonides examined the narrative of Adam in The Guide of the Perplexed.^[291][292] Addressing the objection that eating the fruit appeared to reward Adam with intellect, Maimonides argued that before the Fall, Adam possessed pure rational intellect that perceived things in terms of truth and falsehood.^[293] By succumbing to bodily desires, Adam fell from pure intellectual contemplation into the inferior realm of conventional, subjective values: good and bad, pleasing and shameful.^[293] The cultivation of the soil represents the strenuous effort required to extract truth from sensory experience.^[293][294] Later rationalist commentators such as Gersonides argued that the Tree of Life remained accessible to humanity after the Fall through intellectual perfection and contemplation of the Active Intellect.^[293]

In Islamic philosophy and Sufi mysticism, Adam is analyzed as the prototype of the Perfect Human (al-Insan al-Kamil).^[248][295] Mansur al-Hallaj cited the prophetic tradition that God created Adam in His own image, arguing that Adam is the mirror reflecting the divine essence.^[295] Mystics such as Ruzbihan Baqli and Ibn Arabi taught that whereas every other creature reflects a single divine attribute, Adam was created as the comprehensive synthesis reflecting all divine names and attributes simultaneously, serving as the pupil in the eye of the cosmos through which God beholds His creation.^[295] The Fatimid Ismaili philosopher Nasir Khusraw presented Adam as the first prophetic orator (natiq) who revealed the exoteric law, followed by his spiritual legatee (wasi) Seth.^[296]

In modern Western philosophy, G. W. F. Hegel incorporated the Fall of Adam into his speculative system in the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences and Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion.^[297][298] Hegel argued that the original paradise was a state of unthinking, animal innocence devoid of ethical will; the eating of the fruit was the necessary emergence of self-consciousness, alienating humanity from nature and introducing moral division, which must ultimately be reconciled at a higher level of conscious freedom.^[297] The Russian philosopher Lev Shestov held that death is hidden in knowledge, and contrasted the Greek view, in which the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge was the source of philosophy and a liberating force, with Scripture, in which it marked the beginning of slavery and the fall of man.. In political philosophy, Thomas Hobbes drew upon the concept of original sin to describe the natural state of humanity as a chaotic war of all against all (bellum omnium contra omnes).^[299]

In Masonic philosophy, 18th-century writers such as James Anderson in The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1723) characterized Adam as the primordial Grand Master and first Mason.^[300][301] Anderson asserted that Adam was created with the liberal arts, especially geometry, inscribed upon his heart, which he subsequently transmitted to his descendants.^[302] Masonic legends developed themes surrounding Adam's lost innocence and the restoration of primal wisdom, with higher degrees in the York Rite and Scottish Rite incorporating Adamic titles.^[301][303]

Apocrypha and folklore

A rich corpus of apocryphal literature and regional folklore expanded the brief biblical account of Adam.^{[304][305][306][307]} The Life of Adam and Eve (extant in Latin, Greek, Slavonic, Armenian, and Georgian versions) describes the life of the first pair after their expulsion.^{[141][304][307]} In this text, Adam and Eve perform penance to seek divine mercy: Adam stands neck-deep in the waters of the Jordan River for forty days, while Eve stands in the Tigris River for thirty-four days. One account reverses the rivers, with Adam fasting in the Tigris and Eve in the Jordan.^[308][309] After eighteen days, Satan disguises himself as an angel of light to deceive Eve a second time, convincing her that God has accepted their penance and inducing her to leave the river prematurely.^[308]

The Book of Jubilees, composed in the 2nd century BCE, details that Adam spent 40 days in the land where he was created before being led into Eden, while Eve spent 80 days, paralleling the biblical purification periods for male and female births.^[310][311] The text records that angels taught Adam farming, crafts, and medicine during his seven years in the garden, and notes that before the Fall, all animals possessed the ability to speak a common language.^{[312][313][314]} In the Testament of Abraham, Adam is depicted seated in the afterlife upon a golden throne of divine glory, watching the souls of humanity depart through two gates: he weeps bitterly and pulls his hair when the multitudes enter the broad gate of destruction, but rejoices when souls enter the narrow gate of life, with his weeping exceeding his laughter sevenfold because the majority choose ruin.^[315][316] The Syriac Cave of Treasures (7th century) recounts that Noah preserved Adam's bones on board the Ark during the Deluge and later commanded his son Shem and Melchizedek to bury Adam's skull at Golgotha, the center of the earth.^[182][317]

In medieval Slavic apocrypha, such as the 14th-century Tale of the Creation of Adam by God, humanity's creation is described as an assembly of eight cosmic components: the body from earth, bones from stone, blood from the sea, eyes from the sun, thoughts from clouds, light from light, breath from wind, and heat from fire.^[318][319] A related legend, the Contract (or Hand-Writing) of Adam, describes how the devil blocked Adam from plowing the soil until Adam signed a written stone contract pledging, 'Whoever owns the earth, to him belong I and my children'; Adam consented knowing that Christ would later be born, descend to hell, and nail the demonic contract to the cross.^[320][321] In the Jewish Sibylline Oracles (2nd century BCE), an acrostic explanation of the Greek name Adam (ΑΔΑΜ) was formulated from the four cardinal directions: Anatole (East), Dysis (West), Arktos (North), and Mesembria (South), symbolizing that dust was gathered from all corners of the earth.^[322][323]

Family and genealogy

Canonical Genesis names only three sons of Adam and Eve: Cain, Abel, and Seth. Extrabiblical traditions, midrashim, and apocrypha preserve extensive traditions regarding their other children.^{[56][324][325][326][327]} Various sources ascribe to Adam between 14 and 140 children, with the Slavonic Life of Adam and Eve specifying 30 sons and 30 daughters.^{[141][327][328]} The Book of Jubilees records the names of two daughters: Awan, born after Cain and Abel, who became the wife of Cain, and Azura, born after Seth, who married Seth.^{[324][325][326][329][330]}

Rabbinic and Christian medieval commentaries frequently taught that Adam's children were born as twins consisting of a male and female pair to allow human propagation without incestuous unions between identical twins.^{[331][332][333]} Bereshit Rabbah 22:2 quotes Rabbi Joshua ben Karha stating that two lay down and seven rose up: Cain with one twin sister, and Abel with two twin sisters.^{[331][333][334]} In rabbinic tradition, Cain and Abel quarrelled over which of them would marry the second twin sister born with Abel.^[331] In Sunni sources, including the work of Ibn Kathir, Cain refused to marry Abel's twin sister because he wanted to marry his own twin, while a tradition attributed to Jafar al-Sadiq rejects the claim that the brothers fought over their sister and says Cain killed Abel over the testament that God told Adam to give to Abel.^[335][336] The 15th-century commentator Isaac Abravanel, citing earlier histories, recorded the names of these twin sisters as Calmana (wife of Cain) and Balbira or Delbora (wife of Abel), names that also appear in the 7th-century Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius and John Gower's Confessio Amantis.^{[331][332][337][338]} In Islamic tradition, Adam's daughters include Labuda and Aklima.^[339] The vizier Abu'l-Fazl Allami names Cain's twin sister Iklimiya, and other sources name Cain's twin sister Luluwa, Iqlima or Aqlima.^{[339][340][341]}

In Genesis 5, Adam's direct patrilineal genealogy is traced through ten generations down to Noah: Adam, Seth, Enos, Kenan, Mahalalel, Jared, Enoch, Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah.^[54][342] Early biblical chronologists, such as Archbishop James Ussher in 1650, calculated the date of creation to 4004 BCE based on the patriarchal lifespans. Late antique and medieval scholars debated the extreme lifespans of the antediluvian patriarchs, with figures like Augustine arguing for their literal reality, while others hypothesized that the years represented lunar months (which would reduce Adam's 930 years to approximately 75 solar years) or dynasties.^{[343][344][345][346]}

Scientific perspectives and genetics

The literal historical existence of Adam and Eve as the sole biological parents of the entire human species is incompatible with the established scientific consensus of modern evolutionary biology, paleoanthropology, and genetics.^{[347][348][349]} Homo sapiens descends from earlier species and appeared at least 300,000 years ago in Africa, where it evolved gradually.^[350][351] The human line does not go back to a single couple, and scientific findings show that the earliest human population numbered more than several thousand; results of the Human Genome Project show that humans and other primates share common ancestors.^{[348][350][352][353]}

In population genetics, the term Y-chromosomal Adam is used to designate the patrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) from whom all living males inherit their Y chromosome, while Mitochondrial Eve designates the matrilineal MRCA from whom all living humans inherit mitochondrial DNA.^{[347][352][354][355][356]} Geneticists chose these biblical names as metaphors rather than historical claims: Y-chromosomal Adam and Mitochondrial Eve were not the only humans living in their eras, their own lineages trace back to earlier common ancestors, and they did not live at the same time or in the same location.^{[347][352][354][356][357]} Y-chromosomal Adam is estimated to have lived in Africa roughly 200,000 to 300,000 years ago, whereas Mitochondrial Eve lived roughly 150,000 years ago.^{[352][354][356][357]}

Sociological and anthropological scholars, such as Jerzy A. Kowalski, suggest that the narrative of Adam's transition from Eden to arduous agriculture reflects a cultural memory of the Neolithic Revolution, when human societies transitioned from the relatively leisure-filled hunting-and-gathering foraging lifestyle to labor-intensive arable farming and animal husbandry.^[96][358] Within modern Christian theology, organizations such as BioLogos advocate evolutionary creationism (theistic evolution), interpreting Adam and Eve as historical or allegorical tribal representatives of early humanity chosen by God to receive moral awareness and a spiritual calling.^{[359][360][361][362]} In 1950, Pope Pius XII issued the encyclical Humani Generis, which cautioned against polygenism (the belief that humanity descended from multiple ancestral stocks) because of perceived difficulties in reconciling it with the doctrine of original sin; subsequent Catholic theological discussion has explored models that harmonize evolutionary science with theological orthodoxy.^[363][364]

In art, literature, and culture

The narrative of Adam has exerted an enduring influence on Western and Middle Eastern art, literature, and culture.^{[28][365][366][367]} In visual arts, depictions of Adam and Eve provided Christian artists with a rare acceptable biblical subject for the study and portrayal of the human nude.^[368] The earliest surviving Christian depictions date from the 2nd and 3rd centuries in the Catacombs of San Gennaro in Naples and the Dura-Europos house church in Syria.^[368] Renaissance masters produced celebrated treatments, including Masaccio's fresco The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden in the Brancacci Chapel, Albrecht Dürer's 1507 oil diptych Adam and Eve, and Michelangelo's ceiling frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, notably The Creation of Adam, which depicts God reaching out to spark life into Adam's index finger.^[367][368] Artists occasionally debated whether Adam should be painted with an omphalos (navel), since he was created directly by God without gestation, though omitting the navel often appeared unnatural. In sculpture, notable works include Tullio Lombardo's Venetian Renaissance Adam (c. 1490) and Auguste Rodin's Adam (c. 1880), created in connection with The Gates of Hell.^[369][370]

In European drama and literature, the 12th-century Anglo-Norman liturgical play Jeu d'Adam (The Play of Adam) depicted the Fall as a consequence of pride and disobedience.^[365][371] In Dante's Divine Comedy, Adam is placed in the Empyrean Rose of Paradise seated immediately to the left of the Virgin Mary, where Dante questions him regarding the language of Eden and the duration of his earthly life. The most famous literary treatment in English is John Milton's 1667 epic poem Paradise Lost, which dramatizes the cosmic rebellion of Satan, the temptation of Eve, and Adam's conscious choice to eat the fruit out of love for Eve and dread of separation.^{[365][372][373]} Other prominent theatrical and literary adaptations include Hugo Grotius's Latin tragedy Adamus Exsul (1601), Joost van den Vondel's Dutch drama Adam in Ballingschap (1664), Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock's tragedy Der Tod Adams (1757), and Mark Twain's satirical short stories published as Extracts from Adam's Diary.^{[365][374][375]} In 20th-century Russian literature, poets of the Acmeist movement (also called Adamists), such as Nikolai Gumilev and Sergei Gorodetsky, adopted Adam as an archetype of fresh, virile poetic naming, celebrating physical existence and the primeval naming of the animals.

In cinema, early short films depicting Adam and Eve appeared in 1912, and because most such films showed the couple nude, the Vatican formally protested in 1920; Pope Benedict XV is said to have tried to destroy the film La Bibbia before settling for banning it for Catholics, and between 1930 and 1968 an American film association, under the Motion Picture Production Code, prevented several films about Adam from being made because of nudity.^[376] John Huston's 1966 epic The Bible: In the Beginning featured Michael Parks as Adam, utilizing creative lighting and angles to navigate censorship.^[376] In contemporary animation and popular media, Adam appears as a central antagonist in the animated musical series Hazbin Hotel, where he leads the legions of angelic exorcists, and as a fighter representing humanity against the gods in the Japanese manga and anime Record of Ragnarok.^[377][378]

References

1. Hendel 2000, p. 18. (Hendel, Ronald S (2000). "Adam". In David Noel Freedman (ed.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.)
2. Chipman, Leigh NB. "Mythic Aspects of the Process of Adam's Creation in Judaism and Islam." Studia Islamica (2001): 5-25.
3. Адам // Православная энциклопедия. — М., 2000. — Т. I : А — Алексий Студит. — С. 280—283. — 40 000 экз. — ISBN 5-89572-006-4.
4. Pope, “Adam”, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 371. (Pope, Marvin H.; Halevy, Elimelech Epstein; Wolfe, Adela; Kadosh, David; Heller, Bernard (2006). "َAdam". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 376–371.)
5. Hendel 2000, str. 18-19. (Hendel, Ronald S (2000). »Adam«. V David Noel Freedman (ur.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.)
6. Hendel 2000, p. 18.
7. Gn 2,7 dans la Bible Segond, Genèse 2:7 dans la Bible du Rabbinat.
8. Gn 4,25 dans la Bible Segond, Genèse 4:25 dans la Bible du Rabbinat.
9. Barstad, Hans M. (2014, 10. mars). Adam: bibelsk skikkelse. I Store norske leksikon. Hentet 30. desember 2016 fra https://snl.no/Adam%2Fbibelsk_skikkelse.
10. Hendel, Ronald S. Adam. David Noel Freedman (编). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. 2000: 18 [2021-12-06]. ISBN 9789053565032. （原始内容存档于2021-01-26）.
11. Wallace, “Adam”, The Anchor Bible Dictionary. (Wallace, Howard N. (1992). "Adam". The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Yale University Press.)
12. Hendel 2000, p. 119. (Hendel, Ronald S (2000). "Adam". In David Noel Freedman (ed.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.)
13. Wilhelm Gesenius: Hebräisches und Aramäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament. Herausgegeben von Herbert Donner. 18. Auflage. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 1995, S. 10/11.
14. Daniel Bourguet, « L'homme ou bien Adam ? », Études Théologiques et Religieuses, vol. 67,‎ juillet 1992, p. 323.
15. Hendel 2000, p. 119.
16. Gen 2,5-7;3,19, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
17. Odon Vallet, Qu'est-ce qu'une religion ? : héritage et croyances dans les traditions monothéistes, Paris, Albin Michel, coll. « Espaces libres », 1999, 347 p. (ISBN 978-2-226-09993-8, OCLC 954123744), p. 67.
18. Strong, James (på engelska). The exhaustive concordance of the Bible: showing every word of the text of the common English version of the canonical books, and every occurrence of each word in regular order : together with a key-word comparison of selected words and phrases in the King James version with five leading contemporary translations : also brief dictionaries of the Hebrew and Greek words of the original, with references to the English words (1. ed., 39. pr.). Nashville: Abingdon. Libris 5132772. ISBN 0-687-40030-9 , avd. 'Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary Accompanying the Exhaustive Concordance', s. 8.
19. フラウィウス・ヨセフス 著、秦剛平 訳『ユダヤ古代誌1』株式会社筑摩書房、1999年、ISBN 4-480-08531-9、P34。
20. kõik heebrea sõnastikud, mis netist leida võib, sh. Morfix, Reverso ja Glosbe. "Heebrea sõnaraamat". Vaadatud 15.11.2022.
21. Битие.
22. (en) Arthur George, Elena George, The Mythology of Eden, Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, p. 126.
23. The Book of Genesis Chapters 1-17, Victor P. Hamilton, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1990
24. (en) « Al-Hijr » (consulté le 15 février 2023)
25. (en) UC Berkeley MSA, « Beyond Bilal: Black History in Islam with Ustadh Mustafa Briggs », sur Berkeley MSA, 2 février 2021 (consulté le 15 février 2023)
26. בראשית(бил-боцу.)
27. Cosgrove, The Meanings We Choose, 168. (Cosgrove, Charles H. (2004). The Meanings We Choose: Hermeneutical Ethics, Indeterminacy and the Conflict of Interpretations. Bloomsbury Publishing.)
28. Mojžíš: בראשית.
29. Arnold, “The Primeval History”, Genesis, 56. (Arnold, B. T. (2008). "Commentary Part Two". Genesis. Cambridge University Press. p. 124–27.)
30. Gen 1,26-28, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
31. Gen 2,7-22, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
32. Enns 2012, p. 84. (Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam: What the Bible Does and Doesn't Say about Human Origins. Baker Books. ISBN 978-1-58743-315-3.)
33. Enns 2012, str. 84. (Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam: What the Bible Does and Doesn't Say about Human Origins. Baker Books. ISBN 978-1-58743-315-3.)
34. Enns, 2012, p. 84.
35. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, 37–44. (Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth.)
36. Texterna från Första Moseboken och Nya Testamentet är från Bibeln: Bibelkommissionens översättning (”Bibel 2000”). Örebro: Libris. 1999. Libris 7620534. ISBN 91-7195-504-6 .
37. Genesis 5:2
38. Genesis 1.26–27 KJV
39. Arnold, “The Primeval History”, Genesis, 54. (Arnold, B. T. (2008). "Commentary Part Two". Genesis. Cambridge University Press. p. 124–27.)
40. Gen 2,4-7, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
41. A. a., sid. 39.
42. Genesis 2:7 KJV
43. Collon, Ancient Near Eastern Art, 213. (Collon, Dominique (1995). Ancient Near Eastern Art. University of California Press.)
44. Gen 2,18-20, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
45. Gen 2,21-25, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
46. Mathews 1996, p. 252 (Mathews, K. A. (1996). Genesis 1–11:26. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-0101-1.)
47. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, 45–54. (Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth.)
48. Mathews 1996, s. 240 (Mathews, K. A. (1996). Genesis 1-11:26. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-0101-1.)
49. Mathews 1996, s. 241 (Mathews, K. A. (1996). Genesis 1-11:26. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-0101-1.)
50. Mathews 1996, p. 253 (Mathews, K. A. (1996). Genesis 1–11:26. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-0101-1.)
51. Mathews 1996, s. 253 (Mathews, K. A. (1996). Genesis 1-11:26. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-0101-1.)
52. Mathews, K. A. (1996). Genesis 1–11:26. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-0101-1.
53. Jusqu'à ce moment, le texte ne mentionne Ève que sous le nom de Isha (« la femme »).
54. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, 58. (Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth.)
55. Gen 4,25, su La Parola - La Sacra Bibbia in italiano in Internet.
56. SOUŠEK, Zdeněk. Knihy tajemství a moudrosti II (Mimobiblické židovské spisy: Pseudepigrafy). Praha: Nakladatelství Vyšehrad, 1998. ISBN 80-7021-244-6. S. 29–30.
57. Ge 4
58. Van Seters, John (1998). "The Pentateuch". In Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham (ed.). The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-664-25652-4.
59. Gooder, Paula (2000). The Pentateuch: A Story of Beginnings. T&T Clark. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-0-567-08418-7.
60. Gooder, Paula (2000). The Pentateuch: A Story of Beginnings. T&T Clark. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-0-567-08418-7.
61. Reed, A. Y. (20. september 2004). «Source Criticism, the Documentary Hypothesis, and Genesis 1-3» (PDF). RS 2DD3 – Five Books of Moses: 1, 2. Arkivert fra originalen (PDF) . Besøkt 30. desember 2016. «Arkivert kopi» (PDF). Arkivert fra originalen (PDF) 4. desember 2004. Besøkt 30. desember 2016.
62. Cosgrove 2004, p. 168. (Cosgrove, Charles H. (2004). The Meanings We Choose: Hermeneutical Ethics, Indeterminacy and the Conflict of Interpretations. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-06896-5.)
63. Charles H. Cosgrove (1. september 2004). The Meanings We Choose: Hermeneutical Ethics, Indeterminacy and the Conflict of Interpretations. Bloomsbury Publishing. str. 168. ISBN 978-0-567-06896-5.
64. Cosgrove, 2004, p. 168.
65. Gmirkin 2006, pp. 240–241. (Gmirkin, Russell E. (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-13439-4.)
66. Gmirkin, Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus, 240–241. (Gmirkin, Russell E. (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Bloomsbury Publishing.)
67. Gmirkin 2006, str. 240–241. (Gmirkin, Russell E. (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-13439-4.)
68. Gmirkin, 2006, pp. 240—241.
69. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, 54. (Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth.)
70. "Tanrının Oğulları ve Âdemin Kızları". 13 Şubat 2015 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Şubat 2015.
71. „Arşivlenmiş kopya“. 18 ocak 2017da asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 16 ocak 2017.
72. Rodríguez Santidrián, Pedro. «Adapa, Mito de». A: Diccionario de las religiones. Madrid: Alianza, 1994, p. 15. ISBN 84-7838-400-6.
73. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, 55–56. (Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth.)
74. La creazione dell'uomo descritta nei miti sumeri. Manuel Bonoli. Civiltà Eterne. 7 febbraio 2017.
75. Emmanuel Reibel et Cécile Hussherr (préf. Yves Chevrel), Figures bibliques, figures mythiques : ambiguïtés et réécritures, Paris, Rue d'Ulm, coll. « Coup d'essai », 2002, 128 p. (ISBN 978-2-728-80288-3, OCLC 52795395), p. 10.
76. Giovanni Pettinato, Miti Sumeri, De Agostini, 2013, p. 614.
77. Samuel Noah Kramer, L'Histoire commence à Sumer, 1957.
78. "Sümer Tabletleri ve Kutsal Kitaplar ‎". 5 Eylül 2015 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 22 Eylül 2014.
79. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, 55. (Bandstra, Barry L. (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth.)
80. Arnold, “The Primeval History”, Genesis, 33. (Arnold, B. T. (2008). "Commentary Part Two". Genesis. Cambridge University Press. p. 124–27.)
81. Khnum il Creatore della vita. Storie e misteri dell'Antico Egitto. Libero-Spazio inwind.
82. Khnum, il Vasaio Divino, dal Mammisi del Tempio di Dendera.. Mediterraneo Antico.
83. ש. שפרה, יעקב קליין, בימים הרחוקים ההם: אנתולוגיה משירת המזרח הקדום, תל אביב, עם עובד, 1996, עמ' 199
84. גלי דינור, חוכמתה הגורלית של חוה-תפקידה של חוה מזוית ראיה אקדמית, באתר JOKOPOST, ‏2014-07-01
85. «Traducción al español del poema».
86. URL de la referencia: http://islamqa.info/ar/20907.
87. Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette; Moor, Johannes Cornelis de (2014). Adam, Eve, and the Devil: A New Beginning. Hebrew Bible Monographs (65). Sheffield Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1909697522.
88. Marjo C.A. Korpel, Johannes C. de Moor: Adam, Eve, and the Devil: A New Beginning. Phoenix Pr Ltd, Sheffield 2014, ISBN 978-1-909697-52-2, S. ??.
89. Meldung: Eva hatte keine Schuld: Forscher entschlüsseln Tontafeln. In: Die Presse. 18. Mai 2014, abgerufen am 9. Mai 2019.
90. Pressemeldung: Press Release: Oldest story about Adam and Eve discovered. (Memento vom 29. März 2016 im Internet Archive) Protestantisch-Theologische Universität, Amsterdam/Groningen, 27. Mai 2014, abgerufen am 9. Mai 2019.
91. ORF-Science: Religionswissenschaft: Adam und Eva: 800 Jahre älter als die Bibel?, 19. Mai 2014.
92. Day, John (2021). "The Serpent in the Garden of Eden: Its Background and Role". From Creation to Abraham: Further Studies in Genesis 1-11. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-567-70311-8.
93. Зогар, Быт. 55б.
94. Halevy, “Adam”, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 372. (Pope, Marvin H.; Halevy, Elimelech Epstein; Wolfe, Adela; Kadosh, David; Heller, Bernard (2006). "َAdam". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 376–371.)
95. Moses. בראשית (q.-ivr.).
96. בראשית<a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q9184'></a><a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q14405870'></a><a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q9077'></a><a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q19786'></a><a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q245719'></a><a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q162062'></a><a href='https://wikidata.org/wiki/Track:Q34990'></a>
97. Zoqar, Yaradılış. 55b
98. Талмуд, Санхедрин 38б.
99. Talmud, Sanhedrin 38b
100. Комментарий Раши на Быт. 1.
101. Берешит Рабба, 8:8.
102. Bereşit Rabbah Midraşı, 8
103. Мидраш Танхума к главе Пекудей, 3.
104. Ginzberg 1909, vol I, chapter II. (Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews (PDF). Translated by Henrietta Szold. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.)
105. Ginzberg 1909, vol I, chapter II Navedba: "Bog je posebno skrbno oblikoval svojo (Adamovo) dušo. Ona je Božja podoba in kot Bog napolni svet tako duša napolni človeško telo; kakor Bog vidi vse stvari in ga nihče ne vidi, tako duša vidi, vendar je ni mogoče videti; kakor Bog vodi svet, tako duša vodi telo; kot Bog v svojem svetost je čista, duša tudi, in kakor Bog prebiva v skrivnosti, tudi duša prebiva." (Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews (PDF). Prevedel Henrietta Szold. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.)
106. [Hendel, Ronald S (2000). / "Adam". In David Noel Freedman (ed.).] Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9789053565032.
107. Берешит Рабба, 8:1.
108. Берешит Рабба, 24:8.
109. Мідраш Берешит Раба 8; 14; 24
110. "אמר רבי אליעזר: אדם הראשון מן הארץ ועד לרקיע... וכיוון שסרח, הניח הקדוש ברוך הוא ידו עליו ומיעטו... אמר רב יהודה:... אדם הראשון מסוף העולם ועד סופו היה, שנאמר ' למן אשר ברא אלוהים אדם על הארץ ולמקצה השמים ועד קצה השמים'. כיוון שסרח, הניח הקדוש ברוך הוא ידו עליו ומיעטו..." (חגיגה יב ע"א)
111. Берешит Рабба, 8:10.
112. צלם אלוהים: יופיו של אדם הראשון, באתר מכון שכטר למדעי היהדות
113. Schwartz 2006, p. 130. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
114. Берешит Рабба, 24:7.
115. "הכל בפני שרה - כקוף בפני אדם. שרה בפני חוה - כקוף בפני אדם. חוה בפני אדם - כקוף בפני אדם. אדם בפני שכינה - כקוף בפני אדם" (בבא בתרא נח ע"א)
116. Schwartz 2006, p. 138. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
117. Талмуд, Брахот 61а; Эрувин 18а.
118. בראשית רבה ח', א': עירובין י"ח, ע"א : ברכות ס"א, ע"א
119. Schwartz 2006, str. 138. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
120. בראשית רבה, ה, ב'
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123. Мишна, Санхедрин IV:5.
124. Талмуд, Санхедрин 37аб.
125. Талмуд, Санхедрин 38а.
126. Schwartz 2006, p. 218. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
127. Ялкут Реувени Берешит, 2:21; 4:8.
128. Halevy, “Adam”, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 372–373. (Pope, Marvin H.; Halevy, Elimelech Epstein; Wolfe, Adela; Kadosh, David; Heller, Bernard (2006). "َAdam". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 376–371.)
129. Лилит // Символы, знаки, эмблемы: Энциклопедия / авт.-сост. В. Э. Багдасарян, И. Б. Орлов, В. Л. Телицын; под общ. ред. В. Л. Телицына. — 2-е изд. — М.: Локид-Пресс, 2005. — 495 с.
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131. Талмуд, Эрувин 18б; Мидраш Берешит Раба, 20:11; 24:6.
132. Schwartz 2006, p. 434-435. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
133. Schwartz 2006, str. 434-435. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
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140. Schwartz 2006, str. 437. (Schwartz, Howard (2006). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-532713-7.)
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236. ابن خلدون، مقدمه ابن خلدون، ۷۵۹. (ابن خلدون. مقدمه ابن خلدون. ج. دوم. ترجمهٔ محمد پروین گنابادی. تهران: انتشارات علمی و فرهنگی.)
237. Hendel 2000, p. 18. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHendel2000 (help)
238. Diriwayatkan dari Abu Huraira, Nabi berkata: “Allah menciptakan Adam dan tingginya 60 hasta. Kemudian Ia berkata, ‘Pergilah dan berilah salam kepada para malaikat dan dengarkanlah bagaimana mereka memberi salam kepadamu, karena itu akan menjadi salam bagimu dan salam bagi keturunanmu’. Ia berkata, `Al-salaamu `alaykum (damai besertamu).’ Mereka berkata, `Al-salaamu `alaykum wa rahmat-Allaah (damai ada atasmu dan kemurahan Allah).’ Maka mereka menambahkan kata-kata `wa rahmat Allaah.’ Dan setiap orang yang memasuki firdaus akan memasukinya dalam bentuk/wujud Adam. Orang senantiasa menjadi semakin pendek hingga sekarang”. Imam Bukhari no. 3336 juga no.246; Muslim 7092, juga al-Haafiz ibn Hajar di Fath al-Baari (6/367)
239. "Hz. Âdem'in boyu ne kadardır ve kaç yıl yaşamıştır?". 14 Haziran 2012 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 11 Haziran 2012.
240. التاريخ القويم لمكة وبيت الله الكريم للمؤلف محمد طاهر الكردي المكي
241. HR. Ahmad (5/136)
242. Pedersen, “Adam”, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 178. (Pedersen, J. (1979). "Adam". The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Brill. p. 176–178.)
243. Al-Qarni 2006, hlm. 61-63. (Al-Qarni, A'idh (2006). 40 Hadits Qudsi dan Dzikir. Diterjemahkan oleh Abbas Sungkar, Ferry Irawan. Surakarta: Aqwam. ISBN 979-3653-20-5.)
244. Қазақтың этнографиялық категориялар, ұғымдар мен атауларының дәстүрлі жүйесі. Энциклопедия. - Алматы: DPS, 2011. - ISBN 978-601-7026-17-2
245. Dari Abu Hurairah radhiyallahu ‘anhu bahwa Rasulullah shallallahu ‘alaihi wa sallam bersabda, "Hari paling baik saat matahari terbit pada hari itu adalah hari jumat, pada hari itu Adam diciptakan, dan pada hari itu pula Adam dimasukkan ke dalam surga, serta diturunkan dari surga, pada hari itu juga kiamat akan terjadi, pada hari tersebut terdapat suatu waktu yang tidaklah seorang mukmin shalat menghadap Allah mengharapkan kebaikan kecuali Allah akan mengabulkan permintaannya.” (HR. Muslim)
246. Ibnu Katsir 2014, hlm. 78. (Ibnu Katsir (2014). Kisah-Kisah Para Nabi. Diterjemahkan oleh Muhammad Zaini. Surakarta: Insan Kamil Solo. ISBN 978-602-6247-11-7.)
247. من كتاب البداية والنهاية، ابن كثير.
248. Mohamed Haj Yousef The Single Monad Model of the Cosmos: Ibn Arabi's Concept of Time and Creation ibnalarabi 2014 ISBN 978-1-499-77984-4 page 292
249. موحد، «آدم»، دائره‌المعارف بزرگ اسلامی، ۱۸۲–۱۸۳. (موحد، صمد (۱۳۷۴). «آدم». دائرةالمعارف بزرگ اسلامی. ج. ۱. مرکز دائرةالمعارف بزرگ اسلامی. ص. ۱۸۰–۱۹۲.)
250. Patricia Crone Islam, the Ancient Near East and Varieties of Godlessness: Collected Studies in Three Volumes, Band 3 BRILL 2016 ISBN 978-9-004-31931-8 page 230-231
251. "Man Lived on Earth Even Before the Advent of Adam". Al Islam. 2000-02-16.
252. Marvin Meyer; Willis Barnstone (June 30, 2009). "On the Origin of the World and The Reality of the Rulers (The Hypostasis of the Archons)". The Gnostic Bible. Shambhala. ISBN 978-1-59030-631-4. Retrieved 2021-10-17.
253. Meyer, M. and W. Barnstone (2009). "On the Origin of the World and The Reality of the Rulers (The Hypostasis of the Archons)". The Gnostic Bible. Shambhala. ISBN 978-1-59030-631-4.
254. Ипостась Архонтов. Архивная копия от 21 апреля 2008 на Wayback Machine.
255. Ипостась Архонтов, 88.10—16.
256. См. Премудрость Иисуса Христа. СПб, 2004. С. 286—302.
257. Второй трактат Великого Сифа. Архивная копия от 15 февраля 2008 на Wayback Machine, 55, 63.
258. 吉田敦彦「6 霊魂のはじまり-なぜ、男は「魂」的存在で女は「魄」的存在なのか」『天地創造99の謎―世界の神話はなぜ不滅か』サンポウ・ブックス、1976年2月20日、146-147頁。
259. 吉田敦彦『天地創造神話の謎 古代学ミニエンサイクロペディア』大和書房、1985年5月（原著1976年2月20日）。ISBN 4-479-47005-0。
260. Brikhah S. Nasoraia (2012). "Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion" (PDF).
261. Mandaean Research Center, Council of General Affairs, 1999, p. 1.
262. Nasoraia, “Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis”, 31,45. (Nasoraia, Brikhah S. (2012). "Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion" (PDF).)
263. Gelbert, Carlos (2005). The Mandaeans and the Jews. Edensor Park, NSW: Living Water Books. ISBN 0-9580346-2-1.
264. Курт Рудольф. Мандеизм. Иконография религий, гл. XXI . Дата обращения: 31 марта 2008. Архивировано из оригинала 13 декабря 2009 года.
265. Gelbert, Carlos (2005). The Mandaeans and the Jews. Edensor Park, NSW: Living Water Books. ISBN 0-9580346-2-1. OCLC 68208613.
266. The Ginza Rba: Křest Adama – text Archivováno 4. 3. 2016 na Wayback Machine.
267. Глоссарий // Кефалайа / Пер. и комм. Е. Б. Смагиной. М., 1998. С. 362—364.
268. Widengren, “Manichaeism”, The Cambridge History of Iran, 978–979. (Widengren, G. (1983). "Mazdakism". The Cambridge History of Iran (in English). Cambridge University Press. p. 991–965.)
269. Кефалайа, лист 54, ст. 7 // М., 1998. С. 97.
270. Swayd 2009, p. 3. (Swayd, Samy S. (2009). The a to Z of the Druzes. ISBN 978-0-8108-6836-6.)
271. Swayd, Samy S. (2009). The a to Z of the Druzes. ISBN 978-0-8108-6836-6.
272. Swayd 2009, p. 3.
273. Hitti, Philip K. (1928). The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-4655-4662-3.
274. Arakelova, Victoria (2021). "CHAPTER 32 Yezidism from Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements on JSTOR". Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. doi:10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbv8.41.
275. Arakelova, Victoria (2004). "Notes on the Yezidi Religious Syncretism". Iran & the Caucasus. 8 (1): 19–28. ISSN 1609-8498.
276. Spät, Eszter (2002). "Shahid bin Jarr, Forefather of the Yezidis and the Gnostic Seed of Seth". Iran & the Caucasus. 6 (1/2): 27–56. ISSN 1609-8498.
277. (en) Adib Taherzadeh, The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh, Oxford, George Ronald, 1972 (ISBN 0-85398-344-5), p. 32.
278. Lettre écrite au nom de la Maison Universelle de Justice, adressée à un croyant, le 13 mars 1986. Publiée dans (en) The Universal House of Justice; Helen Hornby (Ed.), Lights of Guidance : A Bahá'í Reference File, New Delhi, Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1983 (ISBN 81-85091-46-3, lire en ligne), chap. XLI (« Prophets - Manifestations of God »), p. 501.
279. Patto bahai
280. Сейид Али Мухаммадом Ширази, основатель и пророк Веры Баби.
281. Абдул-Баха, Ответы на некоторые вопросы. Архивировано 14 мая 2008 года., гл. 30.
282. Sours, The Tablet of the Holy Mariner, 86. (Sours, Michael (2001). The Tablet of the Holy Mariner: An Illustrated Guide to Baha'u'llah's Mystical Work in the Sufi Tradition. Kalimát Press.)
283. McLean, New Perspectives on a Baháʼí Theology, 215. (McLean, Jack (1997). Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a Baháʼí Theology. Vol. 8. George Ronald.)
284. Momen, A Basic Baháʼí Dictionary, 8. (Momen, Wendy (1989). A Basic Baháʼí Dictionary. Oxford: George Ronald.)
285. Laura Clifford Barney, Les leçons de Saint-Jean-d'Acre, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1982, p. 315
286. Denver Snuffer: Adam’s Religion. denversnuffer.com, 21. Dezember 2015, abgerufen am 26. August 2017 (englisch).
287. The History and Doctrine of the Adam-ondi-Ahman Revelation (D&C 116) | Religious Studies Center. rsc.byu.edu [online]. [cit. 2026-09-15]. Dostupné online.
288. Vease Apocalipsis 12:7-9.
289. Филон Александрийский. О сотворении мира согласно Моисею, гл. LII // Толкования к Ветхому Завету. — М., 2000. Архивная копия от 20 ноября 2012 на Wayback Machine.
290. Wolfe and Kadosh, “Adam”, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 373–374. (Pope, Marvin H.; Halevy, Elimelech Epstein; Wolfe, Adela; Kadosh, David; Heller, Bernard (2006). "َAdam". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 376–371.)
291. Позиция Маймонида подробно разбирается в следующих книгах: Клайн-Бреслави, Адам, [на ивр.] с. 39—168; Fox, «Interpreting Maimonides», p. 52—199, и в статьях Клайн-Бреслави, Харви («Маймонид и Спиноза…» [на ивр.]), Бермана и др. Особое внимание вызвала маймонидовская трактовка добра и зла и её отношение к соответствующей концепции Спинозы; см. статью Харви; Крейсель «Понятие блага в учении Маймонида» [на ивр.]; Pines, «Truth and Falsehood…»; Motzkin, «Maimonides and Spinoza…» и др.
292. Wolfe and Kadosh, “Adam”, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 374. (Pope, Marvin H.; Halevy, Elimelech Epstein; Wolfe, Adela; Kadosh, David; Heller, Bernard (2006). "َAdam". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 376–371.)
293. Маймонид. «Путеводитель растерянных. Глава 2. Дата обращения: 15 апреля 2008. Архивировано 20 октября 2007 года.
294. См. Путеводитель растерянных, гл. 34.
295. موحد، «آدم»، دائره‌المعارف بزرگ اسلامی، ۱۸۹–۱۹۲. (موحد، صمد (۱۳۷۴). «آدم». دائرةالمعارف بزرگ اسلامی. ج. ۱. مرکز دائرةالمعارف بزرگ اسلامی. ص. ۱۸۰–۱۹۲.)
296. Virani, Shafique (January 2005). "The Days of Creation in the Thought of Nasir Khusraw". Nasir Khusraw: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow.
297. Гегель Г. В. Ф. Энциклопедия философских наук. т. I. М., 1974, — С. 128.
298. Гегель Г. В. Ф. Философия религии. В 2 т. М., 1977. — С. 255—271.
299. Pabst, A. (2018). Liberal World Order and Its Critics: Civilisational States and Cultural Commonwealths. Vereinigtes Königreich: Taylor & Francis.
300. David Stevenson. James Anderson: Man and Mason.
301. « Origines de la franc-maçonnerie », d'après Ch. Bernardin du Grand Orient de France.
302. James Anderson. The Constitutions of the Free-Masons. — 1734. — P. 7.
303. Haycock. William Stukeley: Science, Religion and Archaeology in Eighteenth-Century England, Chapter 7: Much Greater, Than Commonly Imagined. Архивировано 26 февраля 2009 года. (англ.).
304. Hendel 2000, p. 19. (Hendel, Ronald S (2000). "Adam". In David Noel Freedman (ed.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2.)
305. Апокалипсис Адама. Архивная копия от 21 апреля 2008 на Wayback Machine.
306. Marinus de Jonge, Johannes Tromp The Life of Adam and Eve and Related Literature ISBN 1-85075-764-X (1997)
307. Gary A. Anderson, Michael E. Stone, Johannes Tromp Literature on Adam and Eve: Collected Essays ISBN 90-04-11600-1 (2000)
308. Житие Адама и Евы [Латинская версия]. apokrif.fullweb.ru. Архів оригіналу за 22 лютого 2020. Процитовано 12 квітня 2020.
309. SLAVONIC VITA ADAE ET EVAE: The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament, R. H. Charles, Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1913
310. Книга Юбилеев, главы 3—4 // Книга Еноха: Апокрифы. СПб, 2000. — С. 106—111.
311. The Book of Jubilees. [dostęp 2019-06-16]. (ang.).
312. Книга Юбилеев. Архивная копия от 12 марта 2008 на Wayback Machine, 3:15.
313. Книга Юбилеев, 3:16.
314. Книга Юбилеев, 3:28.
315. Апокриф «Смерть Авраама», 13.
316. The Testament of Abraham. [dostęp 2019-06-16]. (ang.).
317. Пещера Сокровищ. Книга преемственности поколений (перевод Breanainn). nordxp.3dn.ru. Архів оригіналу за 10 березня 2019. Процитовано 12 квітня 2020.
318. Сказание о сотворении Богом Адама.
319. Сказание как сотворил Бог Адама. Библиотека литературы Древней Руси / Том 3 /. Архів оригіналу за 24 січня 2020.
320. Об Адаме и Еве. Дата обращения: 12 марта 2023. Архивировано 12 марта 2023 года.
321. Сочинения Ивана Семеновича Пересветова. Издание ПЛДР, том 6.
322. Оракулы Сивилл, 3:26.
323. Оракули Сивілл 3:26
324. Jubilees 4:1.
325. Книга Юбилеев, глава 4, абзац 1.
326. Книга Юбилеев, глава 4, абзац 2.
327. Arturo Graf, Miti, leggende e superstizioni del Medio Evo
328. "Adam og Evas Liv, 24:2". Arkiveret fra originalen 25. juni 2016. Hentet 15. juni 2016.
329. Jubilees 4:9
330. James C. VanderKam, Jubilees 1: A Commentary on the Book of Jubilees Chapters 1–21, Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2018, p. 38.
331. Элиягу Эссас. Кто — жена Каина? Еврей.com (25 февраля 2003). Дата обращения: 23 апреля 2019. Архивировано 26 мая 2020 года.
332. The Chronicles of Jerahmeel or, the Hebrew Bible Historiale, a cura di Moses Gaster, Londra, Royal Asiatic Society, 1899, XXVI, p. 54; vedere anche Daniel J. Harrington, The Hebrew fragments of Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum biblicarum preserved in the Chronicles of Jerahmeel, Missolua, Society of Biblical Literature, 1974, 1.1, p. 11.
333. Citato in: John Bowker, The Targums and Rabbinic Literature, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1969, p. 137.
334. בראשית רבה, פרשה כ"ב, פסקה ב'
335. Ibnu Katsir 2014, hlm. 64. (Ibnu Katsir (2014). Kisah-Kisah Para Nabi. Diterjemahkan oleh Muhammad Zaini. Surakarta: Insan Kamil Solo. ISBN 978-602-6247-11-7.)
336. بحار الأنوار ص١١ نسخة محفوظة 2023-12-25 على موقع واي باك مشين
337. Apocalypse Pseudo-Methodius: An Alexandrian World Chronicle, edito e tradotto da Benjamin Garstad, Cambridge (MA), Harvard University Pres, 2012, Introduction, p. VII
338. פירושו לספר בראשית, פרק ד', פסוק א'
339. Ислам: ЭС, 1991, с. 124. (Ислам: энциклопедический словарь / Отв. ред. С. М. Прозоров. — М. : Наука, ГРВЛ, 1991. — 315 с. — 50 000 экз. — ISBN 5-02-016941-2.)
340. Абу-ль-Фадль Аллами. Акбар-наме, Том 1. Архивная копия от 15 сентября 2019 на Wayback Machine, Глава 14, Глава: Шис — мир с ним. Перевод группы переводчиков под руководством И. О. Клубковой. Архивная копия от 24 августа 2019 на Wayback Machine.
341. Brewer, E. Cobham. "Brewer's dictionary of phrase and fable." (1894).
342. Kejadian 5: 1–29
343. Блаженный Августин. О граде божием, книга XV, глава 12. Дата обращения: 31 августа 2023. Архивировано 31 августа 2023 года.
344. Лео Таксиль. «Забавная Библия», глава 3.
345. Leo Taksil. "La Bible amusante" 3-cü fəsil
346. Чи правда, що Адам прожив 930 років? (англ.). Архів оригіналу за 11 квітня 2020. Процитовано 11 квітня 2020.
347. Takahata, N (January 1993). "Allelic genealogy and human evolution". Mol. Biol. Evol. 10 (1): 2–22. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a039995. PMID 8450756.
348. Longman, “Foreword”, Adam and the Genome. (Longman, Tremper (2017). "Foreword". In Venema, Dennis R.; McKnight, Scot (eds.). Adam and Genome: Reading Scripture after Genetic Science. Brazos Press.)
349. Youngblood, Ronald F. (1986). The Genesis Debate: Persistent Questions about Creation and the Flood. T. Nelson. str. 164. ISBN 978-0-8407-7517-7.
350. Jean-Jacques Hublin et Bernard Seytre, Quand d'autres hommes peuplaient la Terre : Nouveaux regards sur nos origines, Paris, Editions Flammarion, coll. « Champs Sciences », 2011 (1re éd. 2008), 268 p. (ISBN 978-2-08-125242-4).
351. Silvana Condemi et François Savatier, L’Enigme Denisova, Éditions Albin Michel, 2024.
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353. Hublin, Jean-Jacques. Quand d'autres hommes peuplaient la Terre: Nouveaux regards sur nos origines (en francès). Flammarion, 2011-02-05, p. 268 (Champs Sciences). ISBN 978-2-08-125242-4..
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356. Cruciani, Fulvio «A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa» (en anglès). The American Journal of Human Genetics, 88, 6, 19-05-2011. Arxivat de l'original el 2018-05-24. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.002. ISSN: 0002-9297 [Consulta: 30 juny 2026].
357. Karmin et al, “Y chromosome diversity”, Genome Research, 459–466. (Karmin, M.; et al. (2015). "A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture". Genome Research. Vol. 25. p. 459–466.)
358. Павловская, Анна. Вначале боги голодали, или Мифология пищи. Коммерсантъ Наука, № 4. 20.06.2017. Архивная копия от 2 августа 2017 на Wayback Machine.
359. Enns, The Evolution of Adam, 137. (Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam: What the Bible Does and Doesn't Say about Human Origins. Brazos Press.)
360. Daniel. (2026). 《사해 문서로 다시 보는 에녹서》, 250–251. 하움출판사. ISBN 979-11-7374-266-8.
361. A “Historical” Adam? 보관됨 2025-10-02 - 웨이백 머신 — BioLogos
362. Evolution and the Historical Fall: What Does Genesis 3 Tell Us about the Origin of Evil? 보관됨 2025-06-04 - 웨이백 머신 — BioLogos
363. Папа Пий XII. Humani Generis. Архивная копия от 7 декабря 2012 на Wayback Machine.
364. Pie XII, « Humani Generis », 12 août 1950.
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366. Kurt Flasch: Eva und Adam: Wandlungen eines Mythos. Beck, München 2004, ISBN 3-406-52763-9, S. 12 (Seitenansicht in der Google-Buchsuche).
367. «20 of the World's Most Famous Art Pieces». HistoryLists.org, 14-10-2023. Arxivat de l'original el 3 December 2023. [Consulta: 23 juliol 2018].
368. Pope et al, “Adam”, Encyclopaedia Judaica, 376. (Pope, Marvin H.; Halevy, Elimelech Epstein; Wolfe, Adela; Kadosh, David; Heller, Bernard (2006). "َAdam". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 376–371.)
369. «Tullio Lombardo - Adam - Italian, Venice» (en anglès). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Arxivat de l'original el 2026-03-02. [Consulta: 27 juliol 2026].
370. «Adán» (en castellà). Musée Rodin. Arxivat de l'original el 2026-07-28. [Consulta: 27 juliol 2026].
371. История всемирной литературы в 9 томах. АН СССР; ред. Г. П. Бердников — М.: Наука, 1983. Том 2. — С. 587. Архивная копия от 30 марта 2008 на Wayback Machine.
372. Джон Мильтон. Потерянный рай.
373. Labriola, Albert. «Paradise Lost» (en anglès). Literary Encyclopedia. Arxivat de l'original el 2025-07-17. [Consulta: 27 juliol 2026].
374. Йост Вондел. Адам в изгнании.
375. Brodwin, Stanley «The Humor of the Absurd: Mark Twain's Adamic Diaries». Criticism, 14, 1, 1972, p. 49–64. Arxivat de l'original el 2020-11-11. ISSN: 0011-1589 [Consulta: 27 juliol 2026].
376. Sanders, A Handbook of the Bible and Its Reception, 17–19. (Sanders, Theresa (2016). "In the Beginning: Adam and Eve in Film". In Burnette-Bletsch, Rhonda (ed.). The Bible in Motion: A Handbook of the Bible and Its Reception in Film. De Gruyter. p. 17–35.)
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378. Medina, Joel. «'Hazbin Hotel' Season 1 Ending Explained: Do Hell's Favorite Sinners Get Their Redemption?» (en anglès), 02-02-2024. Arxivat de l'original el 2025-04-03. [Consulta: 26 juliol 2026].