Hadean

Etymology and alternative names

The name Hadean derives from Hades, the ancient Greek god of the underworld and ruler of the dead (ancient Greek Haides, Doric Aidas), which also referred to the underworld realm itself.^[6] American geologist Preston Cloud introduced the term in 1972 to designate the span of Earth history prior to the earliest known terrestrial rock formations.^[6][7][8] The name was intended to convey the extreme environmental conditions thought to have characterized the primordial Earth, such as a molten planetary surface coursing with overheated lava flows, energetic accretional heat, short-lived radioactive decay, and heavy celestial bombardments.^[6]

In 1989, British geologist W. Brian Harland and colleagues proposed the near-synonymous term Priscoan Period, derived from the Latin priscus, meaning ancient, primitive, or venerable.^[9][10][11] Earlier geologic literature referred to this initial interval as the Pre-Archean.^{[10][12][13][14]} During much of the 19th and 20th centuries, it was frequently called the Azoic, meaning without life, reflecting the traditional assumption that life could not have existed under primordial conditions.^[7][15] In regional geological traditions, particularly across Russian literature and geotectonics, designations such as Katarchaean (from Greek katarchaios, below the most ancient), Eogeicum, and Protogeicum have been employed.^[16][17][18]

Older natural historical classifications divided Earth's earliest history into sequential phases based on cooling and condensation: the astral or stellar stage (when Earth lacked a solid crust or possessed an incandescent surface), the anhydric stage (marked by a solid crust but where high temperatures kept all water in the atmosphere), and the oceanic or paleooceanic stage (beginning with the condensation of the first seas).^[19][20][21] Although the dating of the formation of the solid crust and of the seas is disputed, these events are mostly placed before 4 billion years ago, so from today's view all three traditional stages fall within the Hadean.^[22][23] In an alternate 19th-century schema proposed by Hervé Faye, the astral period was known as the incandescent epoch, followed by an antezoic era.^[24][25][26]

Chronology and subdivisions

The lower boundary of the Hadean, designated T0, is defined by the age of the oldest solid materials in the Solar System, dated to 4567.30 ± 0.16 million years ago.^[1][27] This age is determined by lead-lead (207Pb-206Pb) and uranium-lead radiometric dating of calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions (CAIs) and chondrules found within primitive carbonaceous chondrite meteorites such as Allende.^{[1][27][28][29]} Alternative radiometric measurements, including manganese-chromium relative dating of carbonates in carbonaceous chondrites, suggest primitive solid material may date as early as 4571 million years ago, and argon-argon dating of IAB iron meteorites like the Mundrabilla meteorite yields ages of 4570 ± 30 million years ago.^[30][31]

The upper boundary of the Hadean was formally adjusted to 4031 ± 3 million years ago by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, defined by the age of the ten oldest concordant U-Pb zircon dates from the Acasta Gneiss Complex along the Acasta River in the Northwest Territories of Canada.^[2][32][33] Prior to this revision, the upper boundary was commonly placed at 4000 million years ago chronometrically, or at 3800 to 3900 million years ago, which corresponded to the age of the Isua supracrustal rocks in Greenland and the hypothesized termination of the Late Heavy Bombardment.^[32][34][35]

Because intact stratigraphic rock units from this interval are absent, the International Commission on Stratigraphy has not ratified formal eras or periods within the terrestrial Hadean.^[2] To provide chronological reference points, geologists have historically borrowed divisions from lunar geologic history, where early surfaces have remained well preserved in the absence of active plate tectonics and erosion.^[36] These lunar eras include the Cryptic (4567 to 4150 Ma), Basin Groups (4150 to 3920 Ma), Nectarian (3920 to 3850 Ma), and Lower Imbrian (3850 to 3800 Ma), which correspond to the impact-basin formation history and early crustal evolution of the Earth-Moon system.^[36][37]

Alternative subdivision schemes have been proposed. In 2010, Craig Goldblatt and colleagues proposed restricting the Hadean eon to the time following the Moon-forming giant impact, pre-dating it with a new Chaotian eon (4567 to 4500 Ma) divided into the Eochaotian (Nebulian and Erabrian periods) and Neochaotian (Hyperian and Titanomachean periods).^[38][39] Under their proposal, the Hadean proper would encompass three eras and six periods: the Paleohadean (Hephaestean and Jacobian periods), Mesohadean (Canadian and Procrustean periods), and Neohadean (Acastan and Promethean periods).^[38][39] In 2012, Martin Van Kranendonk and co-authors proposed dividing the Hadean into an earlier Chaotian era (4.567 to 4.4 billion years ago) and a later Jack Hillsian or Zirconian era (4.4 to 4.0 billion years ago).^[40] As of the 2020s, these schemes remain informal proposals.^[40][41]

Formation of the Solar System and Earth

The origin of the Solar System began with the gravitational collapse of a dense pocket within an interstellar molecular cloud of gas and stellar dust, composed largely of primordial hydrogen and helium supplemented by heavier elements dispersed by previous supernovae.^[42][43] This collapse may have been initiated by shock waves generated by a nearby supernova.^[42] The contracting nebula progressed through a Bok globule phase before flattening into a rotating protoplanetary accretion disk with a dense central core.^[42] As gravitational contraction raised core temperatures and pressures, nuclear fusion ignited, triggering an energetic Herbig-Haro stage and a T Tauri stellar wind phase that lasted up to 50 million years.^[43]

The intense radiation and solar wind from the young Sun swept lighter volatile materials (such as hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia) out of the inner Solar System into the outer regions, leaving an inner disk enriched in refractory elements including silica, iron, magnesium, calcium, and aluminium.^[43] The enrichment of the outer regions in light elements allowed the initial formation of Jupiter, just outside the zone rich in refractory elements (4 astronomical units). The first solids to condense from the cooling solar nebula were calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions (CAIs) and amoeboid olivine aggregates (AOAs), which formed between 4568.3 ± 0.7 and 4567.1 million years ago when the Sun was evolving from a Class 0 to a Class I protostar.^[44]

Collisional accretion of dust grains produced millimeter- to centimeter-sized chondrules, which coalesced into meteoroids and planetesimals through runaway accretion.^[43][45] Differentiated asteroids, such as the parent bodies of the achondrite Asuka 881394, Vesta, and the angrite parent bodies, accreted and melted within 1 to 4 million years after CAI condensation, driven by the radioactive decay of extinct radionuclides such as aluminium-26 and iron-60.^[46][47] Collisions between Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos were widespread within 5 million years after CAIs, as recorded by shock-produced chondrules in CB carbonaceous chondrites.^[46]

The timeline of Earth's accretion remains subject to debate among geochemists. According to models by Alex N. Halliday and Robin M. Canup (2022), Earth accretion began immediately after T0, reaching approximately 1% of modern planetary mass by 5 million years, 20% by 10 million years, 50% by 15 million years (primarily from enstatite-chondrite-like planetesimals), and 90% by 40 million years (around 4527 million years ago).^[48] In contrast, models by Paolo A. Sossi and colleagues (2022) suggest rapid accretion of 90% of Earth's mass within 3.85 to 5.0 million years, similar to Mars.^[49] The final fractions of terrestrial mass, including volatile-rich material from outer Solar System carbonaceous asteroids and comets, were delivered progressively over the subsequent 100 to 180 million years.^[43]

Planetary differentiation and thermal budget

As the proto-Earth accreted, internal temperatures climbed dramatically due to kinetic energy conversion from planetesimal impacts, gravitational self-compression, and the decay of short-lived radioisotopes such as 26Al, 60Fe, and 182Hf.^[36][47][50] The total gravitational binding energy released during Earth's accretion amounted to 2.49 × 10^32 joules, an energy output equivalent to the Sun's entire radiant luminosity over 7.5 days.^[51] Once internal temperatures exceeded the melting point of metallic iron and nickel, dense droplets of molten metal separated from silicate phases and percolated downward toward the planetary center.^[36][52][53]

This segregation, termed the iron catastrophe, was a self-accelerating runaway process that differentiated the Earth into a dense metallic core (composed primarily of iron and nickel) and a silicate bulk Earth mantle and crust.^[36][52][54] Hafnium-tungsten (182Hf–182W) isotopic systematics in terrestrial rocks and meteorites indicate that core separation began within 4 million years of Solar System origin, was largely completed within 10 to 30 million years, and had fully stabilized by 35 to 50 million years after T0.^[36][50][55] Siderophile elements (such as osmium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, platinum, palladium, gold, and rhenium) partitioned preferentially into the descending metallic melt, leaving the primitive mantle depleted in these metals.^[36][55]

Core differentiation laid the structural foundation for Earth's internal layers and allowed the geodynamo to establish an early geomagnetic field, shielding the early atmosphere against solar wind stripping.^[52] J. A. Jacobs proposed that the solid inner core began freezing out of the liquid outer core as the planetary interior gradually cooled at an estimated rate of approximately 100 °C per billion years.^[56][57] Concurrently, high concentrations of long-lived radioisotopes (potassium-40, uranium-235, uranium-238, and thorium-232) generated four to six times more radioactive heat in the early Earth than in the modern era, maintaining high mantle temperatures and low viscosities.^[51][58]

The giant impact and lunar formation

Near the completion of planetary accretion, approximately 4527 to 4450 million years ago, the proto-Earth collided with an approaching Mars-sized protoplanet designated Theia.^[59][60] This event, central to the giant impact hypothesis, occurred after Earth's core had already differentiated, as evidenced by the Moon's depleted iron core and the close match in oxygen (Δ17O), chromium, and titanium isotope systematics between Earth and lunar rocks.^[36][59] Proposed collision dynamics range from an oblique, grazing impact that sheared off portions of Earth's silicate mantle into orbit, to a head-on impact that pulverized both bodies into a vaporized planetary synestia from which the Earth and Moon condensed, or alternatively a succession of multiple smaller accretionary collisions.^[61][62][63]

The giant impact radically altered early Earth dynamics. The collision imparted a significant angular momentum to the Earth-Moon system, tilting Earth's rotational axis to approximately 23.5 degrees and accelerating planetary rotation so that a single day lasted only 5 to 6 hours.^[64][65] Initially, the newly condensed Moon orbited close to the planet, near the Roche limit at an estimated distance of 17,000 to 25,000 kilometers (compared to its current average distance of 384,400 kilometers).^[66] This proximity produced tidal forces about 125 times stronger than today, and frequent tides raised giant waves hundreds to thousands of meters high.

Tidal friction dissipated rotational energy, gradually braking Earth's spin rate, lengthening the day, and transferring angular momentum to the Moon, which drove lunar orbital recession at an initial rate exceeding 10 kilometers per year.^[66] By the close of the Hadean, the recession velocity had slowed to approximately 4 centimeters per year, and the Earth-Moon separation had expanded to around 150,000 kilometers.^[66] The impact also introduced extensive thermal energy, melting the outer silicate mantle to depths of 400 to 700 kilometers and establishing a global terrestrial magma ocean.^[59][67][68]

Magma ocean and early crust

Following the giant impact, temperatures in the outer 500 to 1000 kilometers of the Earth were high enough to sustain a global magma ocean.^[54][69] Numerical simulations indicate that the initial molten rock-vapor envelope condensed within approximately 2,000 years, while the underlying magma ocean required between 5 million and several tens of millions of years to crystallize.^[4][43][70] Solidification progressed from the base upward: fractional crystallization of ultramafic silicates separated an olivine- and pyroxene-rich lower mantle, while lighter plagioclase-rich liquids and volatile fluids moved toward the surface.^[43][71]

The first solid crust to form atop the cooling magma ocean was thin, brittle, and mafic to ultramafic in composition, dominated by basaltic and komatiitic lavas.^[43][53][71] Numerical petrological reconstructions suggest an upper layer up to 21 kilometers thick composed of fractionated gabbros and anorthosites, underlain by a denser grossular-kyanite-quartz layer extending to depths of 50 to 60 kilometers.^[71] Because komatiite and basalt crusts possessed high density, cooling crustal blocks repeatedly fractured, foundered, and sank back into the vigorously convecting upper mantle in an unstable recycling process termed sagduction or vertical tectonics.^[72]

Continued meteorite impacts, coupled with high internal radiogenic heat flow, repeatedly punctured and remelted early crustal segments.^[43] Despite this continuous destruction, interaction between basaltic crust and early liquid water promoted partial melting and hydrothermal alteration, yielding the first intermediate and felsic magmas (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite or TTG suites) as early as 4.4 to 4.3 billion years ago.^[43] These rocks, less dense than basic rocks, stayed at the surface and were later grouped by collisions into proto-continents.

Atmosphere and ocean formation

Earth's initial atmosphere may have consisted largely of hydrogen and helium.^[73][74] Because of the planet's relatively low gravity during early accretion, some of these light gases escaped to space.^[75][76][77] Intense short-wave solar ultraviolet radiation further photodissociated water molecules in the upper atmosphere into oxygen and hydrogen; while hydrogen escaped, oxygen was consumed by reactions with reduced crustal minerals.^[75][77] Comparative xenon isotope systematics between Earth and carbonaceous chondrites show that Earth lost over 99% of this initial primordial envelope.^[43]

A secondary atmosphere developed through intense volcanic outgassing of the mantle and impact vaporization, establishing a thick volatile envelope dominated by carbon dioxide, water vapor, molecular nitrogen, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen chloride.^[4][74][78] Argon isotope measurements show that 80% to 85% of Earth's atmospheric inventory was degassed from the mantle within the first few million years after the Moon-forming collision.^[74] Under a surface pressure exceeding 27 atmospheres (and potentially up to 200 to 250 bars), the strong greenhouse effect raised temperatures to between 200 °C and 230 °C, keeping water in a liquid state despite elevated thermal conditions.^[4][78]

The source of terrestrial water remains debated. While early hypotheses suggested significant delivery from cometary bombardment, stable isotope ratios have challenged this model: cometary deuterium-to-hydrogen (D/H) ratios are generally more than double that of terrestrial seawater, whereas water bound within carbonaceous chondrites matches the isotopic signature of Earth's oceans.^{[75][79][80][81]} As surface temperatures cooled below the critical point of water (374.2 °C at high pressure), water vapor condensed out of the atmosphere, producing global rainfall that lasted thousands of years.^[73] These rains gathered in surface depressions to establish early oceans by 4.4 to 4.3 billion years ago.^[82][83] These waters probably absorbed carbon dioxide from the early atmosphere, but not enough to reduce its concentration significantly.^[4][78]

The faint young Sun paradox

According to model calculations, the luminosity of the young Sun was only about 70 to 75% of its present value. According to the cold early Earth theory, with an early atmosphere comparable to the present one, the Earth would have been frozen, with a surface temperature close to -20 °C. This contradiction with geological evidence demonstrating the presence of liquid oceans and warm weathering environments as early as 4.4 billion years ago is known as the faint young Sun paradox.^[82]

The paradox is resolved primarily by the extreme greenhouse effect of the dense Hadean secondary atmosphere, which was saturated with carbon dioxide (with partial pressures estimated between 0.1 and 10 atmospheres, or higher), water vapor, and methane.^[84]

Geodynamics, plate tectonics, and continents

The nature of Hadean geodynamics remains one of the central controversies in early Earth science.^[85][86] Mantle convection was vigorous, propelled by internal radiogenic heat production and low mantle viscosity resulting from incomplete water outgassing.^[5][87][88] Debate persists over whether this convective regime supported modern-style horizontal plate tectonics with subduction zones, operated under a stagnant lid (or rigid lid) mode characterized by vertical plume-driven tectonics and crustal delamination, or transitioned between both regimes.^{[5][88][89][90]}

Geochemical analyses of Jack Hills detrital zircons provide key evidence regarding early geodynamic settings. A 2008 study found mineral inclusions indicating low crystallization temperatures (averaging ~690 °C) and low thermal heat flow characteristic of modern convergent subduction boundaries, suggesting plate boundary interactions by 4.0 billion years ago.^[91][92] Trace-element and isotopic studies in 2025 revealed that over 70% of Hadean zircons from the Jack Hills display high scandium-to-ytterbium ratios (Sc/Yb > 0.1) characteristic of continental magmatic arcs, and 47% display uranium-to-niobium ratios (U/Nb > 20) typical of subduction settings.^[90] In contrast, Hadean zircons from the Barberton greenstone belt in South Africa exhibit signatures consistent with a stagnant lid regime, demonstrating that multiple, diverse tectonic regimes operated simultaneously across the planet.^[90]

Models of continental crustal volume in the Hadean diverge significantly. Crustal evolution models by Dhuime and colleagues predict that continental crust grew slowly, reaching only 25% of its present-day area by the close of the Hadean.^[85][93] Conversely, models by Jun Korenaga and colleagues indicate that continental crustal volume accumulated rapidly, reaching volumes comparable to present-day levels between 4.2 and 4.0 billion years ago.^[94][95][96] The extent of subaerially exposed land remained limited; elevated mantle temperatures made it difficult for the ductile lithosphere to support high elevations, and extensive surface waters likely formed a global superocean with only isolated volcanic and proto-continental island arcs protruding above sea level.^{[5][97][98][99]}

Impact history and Late Heavy Bombardment

Throughout the Hadean, the Earth-Moon system was subjected to ongoing meteoritic and asteroidal impacts from residual debris left over from Solar System accretion.^[100] Lunar cratering records and Apollo rock samples led to the hypothesis of the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB), or lunar cataclysm, proposing an intense spike in impact rates between 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago, potentially triggered by orbital migration of Jupiter and Saturn disturbing asteroid and Kuiper belt reservoirs.^[100][101] Estimates based on lunar craters of the same period suggest that Earth received 22,000 or more impact craters over 20 kilometers in diameter, about 40 impact basins about 1,000 kilometers across, and several basins about 5,000 kilometers across.

Extremely large impactors, measuring up to 100 kilometers in diameter, released sufficient thermal energy to vaporize up to 100 meters of the global ocean and temporarily raise global atmospheric temperatures to 500 °C.^[102][103] However, numerical models show that the intervals between such collisions spanned thousands to millions of years, allowing global oceans and temperate surface regimes to re-establish.^[104][105] The classical cataclysmic spike at 3.9 billion years ago has been increasingly questioned by planetary scientists; analysis of a lunar impact dated to 4220 ± 10 million years ago and reassessment of Apollo samples suggest the apparent peak may reflect sampling bias from the single Mare Imbrium basin, pointing instead to a steadily declining impact flux from planetary formation onward.^{[106][107][108][109]}

The rock and mineral record

Intact lithic units dating from the Hadean are exceptionally rare, as most original crust was remelted or recycled through tectonic processes.^[5][110] Prior to the 1980s, understandings of early Earth geodynamics were based almost entirely on theoretical models.^[111][112] The oldest known surviving mineral fragments on Earth are detrital zircon crystals recovered from Archean metasedimentary conglomerates (dating to ≤ 3.05 Ga) in the Jack Hills of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia.^[5][113] The oldest individual zircon crystal yielded a uranium-lead concordia age of 4404 ± 8 million years ago.^[82][113] While this crystal represents an extreme outlier, consistent clusters of zircon ages from the locality date between 4.35 and 4.0 billion years ago.^{[82][113][114]}

Zircon grains retain chemical and isotopic records of their parent magmas. Oxygen-18 (δ18O) enrichment in 4.4 to 4.2 billion-year-old Jack Hills zircons indicates they crystallized from parent magmas that incorporated crustal rocks altered at low temperatures by liquid surface water, confirming the presence of a hydrosphere within 200 million years of Earth's formation.^{[82][83][104]} Hafnium isotope data from zircons dated between 4.27 and 4.01 billion years ago may point to very early continental crust formation, possibly beginning around 4450 ± 20 million years ago.^[115] Hadean-aged xenocrystic zircon cores and grains have also been identified in five other countries: the Southern Cross Terrane of Australia, the Cathaysia Block and Qinling Orogen of China, the Iwokrama Formation of the Guiana Shield in Guyana (dated to 4.22 Ga), the Anshan Complex in China, northeast Brazil (4.1 Ga), and Wyoming in the United States (4.03 Ga).^{[53][116][117][118][119][120][121]}

The oldest known intact rock formation on Earth is the Acasta Gneiss, located in the Slave Craton of the Northwest Territories, Canada, with tonalitic orthogneiss components dated to 4031 ± 3 million years ago.^{[2][122][123]} In the Superior Craton of northern Quebec, amphibolites and gabbroic gneisses of the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt have yielded controversial samarium-neodymium (146Sm–142Nd and 147Sm–143Nd) isochron model ages ranging between 4151 ± 290 and 4280 million years ago, which may represent the oldest surviving crustal platform or mantle melting event.^{[124][125][126]} Beyond terrestrial rocks, a rock fragment recovered during the Apollo 14 mission may contain terrestrial quartz, feldspar, and zircon crystallized at 4.0 to 4.1 billion years ago, which was ejected from Earth by a meteorite impact and deposited on the Moon.^[127]

Potential emergence of life

Although the harsh surface conditions of the Hadean were once considered inhospitable to biology, geochemical and laboratory research suggests that prebiotic organic evolution and abiogenesis may have commenced before the eon closed.^{[123][128][129]} In 2015, Elizabeth Bell and colleagues detected micro-inclusions of graphite within a 4.1-billion-year-old Jack Hills zircon crystal that exhibited a light carbon isotope ratio (δ13CPDB of -24 ± 5 ‰), a fractionation signature consistent with biological carbon fixation.^{[130][131][132]} In 2017, putative microfossils comprising hematite tubes and filaments associated with seafloor hydrothermal vent deposits were reported from the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt in Quebec, with minimum ages of 3.77 billion years and possible model ages up to 4.28 billion years.^[133][134]

Experimental laboratory studies by Annalena Salditt and colleagues in 2023 demonstrated that simulated Hadean geothermal microenvironments could facilitate early molecular evolution.^[135][136] Porous rock systems containing heated gas-water interfaces supported the ribozyme-catalyzed replication of sense and antisense strands of RNA, followed by thermal strand dissociation, ribozyme folding, and template-switching recombination similar to mechanisms observed in modern RNA viruses.^{[135][136][137]} Furthermore, molecular clock phylogenetic analyses published in 2024 inferred that the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all cellular life on Earth emerged during the Hadean, between 4.09 and 4.33 billion years ago.^[138][139] Subterranean crustal habitats and deep-sea hydrothermal systems may have provided stable refugia for early extremophilic microorganisms to survive major impact events.^[105][140]

References

1. Halla, Janna; Noffke, Nora; Reis, Humberto; Awramik, Stanley; et al. (June 2024). "Ratification of the base of the ICS Geological Time Scale: the Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) for the Hadean lower boundary". Episodes. 47 (2): 381–389. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2024/024002. eISSN 2586-1298. ISSN 0705-3797. LCCN 78646808. OCLC 4130038.
2. "Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point". International Commission of Stratigraphy. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
3. Taylor, G. Jeffrey. "Origin of the Earth and Moon". Solar System Exploration. NASA. Archived from the original on March 8, 2015.
4. Sleep, NH; Zahnle, K; Neuhoff, PS (2001). "Initiation of clement surface conditions on the earliest Earth". PNAS. 98 (7): 3666–3672. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.3666S. doi:10.1073/pnas.071045698. PMC 31109. PMID 11259665.
5. Korenaga, J (2021). "Was There Land on the Early Earth?". Life. 11 (11): 1142. Bibcode:2021Life...11.1142K. doi:10.3390/life11111142. PMC 8623345. PMID 34833018.
6. Preston Cloud: A working model of the primitive Earth. In: American Journal of Science. Band 272 (6), 1972, S. 537–548, doi:10.2475/ajs.272.6.537.
7. Cloud, Preston (1972). "A working model of the primitive Earth". American Journal of Science. 272 (6): 537–548. Bibcode:1972AmJS..272..537C. doi:10.2475/ajs.272.6.537.
8. Bleeker, W. (2004). "Chapter 10. Toward a 'natural' Precambrian time scale". In Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (eds.). A Geologic Time Scale. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 9780521786737.
9. "Priscoan". Oxford Living dictionaries. Archived from the original on 2018-11-29.
10. Walter Brian Harland und Kollegen: A geological time scale 1989. In: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 1990, ISBN 0-521-38361-7.
11. A.S. Andrejeva-Grigorovič, N. Hudáčková a L. Ožvoldová: Systematická paleontológia bezstavovcov 1 (2006)
12. Shaw, D.M. (1975). Early history of the Earth. Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute. Leicester: John Wiley. pp. 33–53. ISBN 0-471-01488-5.
13. Jarvis, Gary T.; Campbell, Ian H. (December 1983). "Archean komatiites and geotherms: Solution to an apparent contradiction". Geophysical Research Letters. 10 (12): 1133–1136. Bibcode:1983GeoRL..10.1133J. doi:10.1029/GL010i012p01133.
14. Archivovaná kópia [online]. [cit. 2021-10-01]. Dostupné online. Archivované 2021-10-01 z originálu.
15. geológia. In: Encyclopaedia Beliana 5, S. 110-111
16. Михайлова И. А., Бондаренко О. Б. Основные геологические (стратиграфические) подразделения // Палеонтология. Часть 1. — Учебное пособие. — M.: Изд-во МГУ, 1997. — С. 76. — 448 с. — ISBN 5-211-03868-1. — [Архивировано 8 апреля 2012 года.]
17. PLOETZ, Karl Julius. Der große Ploetz (die Daten-Enzyklopädie der Weltgeschichte ; Daten, Fakten, Zusammenhänge). [s.l.] : Komet, 1998. 2047 s. Dostupné online. ISBN 978-3-89836-147-7. S. 2-12.
18. Zdroje k tejto vete sú uvedené v poznámke pod čiarou
19. astrálne obdobie. In: Encyklopédia Zeme. Bratislava: Obzor. 1983, S. 68
20. QURING, H. Das Loch im Pazifik : Mondentstehung und Laurentische Revolution. In: Prisma : illustrierte Monatsschrift für Natur, Forschung und Technik. 1949, 4
21. TÖLGYESSY, J. et al. Životodarný závoj Zeme. 1. vyd. Bratislava: OBZOR, 1983. (čiastočne citované napr. tu: Archivované 2021-10-03 na Wayback Machine)
22. VALIŠ, J. Prírodopis 8. Bratislava: SPN, 1989, predsázka, S. 13
23. Präkambrium; Archaikum. In: Lexikon der Geowissenschaften. [CD-ROMs] Heidelberg ; Berlin : Spektrum, Akad. Verl., 2002. ISBN 978-3-8274-1655-1.
24. Revue des questions scientifiques. [s.l.] : Société scientifique de Bruxelles., 1885. 704 s. Dostupné online. S. 352.
25. Die Fortschritte Der Physik. [s.l.] : G. Reimer, 1891. 2742 s. Dostupné online. S. 834.
26. Marie-Madeleine Roblot. Étude des roches silico-carbonées du Précambrien Armoricain. [s.l.] : Fondation scientifique de la géologie et de ses applications, 1971. 323 s. S. 60.
27. James N. Connelly, Martin Bizzarro, Alexander N. Krot, Åke Nordlund, Daniel Wielandt und Marina A. Ivanova: The absolute chronology and thermal processing of solids in the solar protoplanetary disk. In: Science. Band 338, 2012, S. 651–655.
28. Ogg et al. (2016); Amelin et al. (2002)
29. Amelin et al. (2010); Connely et al. (2012)
30. Alexander Shukolyukov und Guenter W. Lugmair: Chronology of Asteroid Accretion and Differentiation. In: William F. Bottke, Alberto Cellino, Paolo Paolicchi und Richard P. Binzel (Hrsg.): Asteroids III. University of Arizona Press, Tucson 2002, ISBN 0-8165-2281-2, S. 687–695 (englisch, online frei verfügbar durch researchgate.net).
31. Sidney Niemeyer: 40Ar-39Ar dating of inclusions from IAB iron meteorites. In: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Band 43, Nr. 11, November 1979, ISSN 0016-7037, S. 1829–1840, doi:10.1016/0016-7037(79)90031-0 (englisch).
32. Kim M. Cohen, Stan Finney und Philip Leonard Gibbard: International Chronostratigraphic Chart. (PDF; 355 kB) In: stratigraphy.org. International Commission on Stratigraphy, August 2012, abgerufen am 1. September 2018 (englisch).
33. “International Chronostratigraphic Chart v2026/06” (PDF) (영어). 국제 층서 위원회. 2026년 8월 11일에 확인함.
34. Martin Okrusch und Siegfried Matthes: Mineralogie. Eine Einführung in die spezielle Mineralogie, Petrologie und Lagerstättenkunde. 8., vollständig überarbeitete und aktualisierte Auflage. Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg 2009, ISBN 978-3-540-78200-1, S. 588.
35. http://www.stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2015-01.jpg
36. Tolsthikhin & Kramers (2008)
37. Gabzdyl P.: Měsíc, AVENTINUM s.r.o., Praha 2006, ISBN 80-86858-22-7, S. 193
38. The Eons of Chaos and Hades C. Goldblatt, K.J. Zahnle, N.H. Sleep, E.G. Nisbet Solid Earth 1, 1-3, 2010
39. "The eons of Chaos and Hades" (PDF). Solid Earth. 26 มกราคม 2010.
40. geologicdatascale نسخة محفوظة 2024-11-21 على موقع واي باك مشين
41. "Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. พฤษภาคม 2021. สืบค้นเมื่อ 14 มิถุนายน 2021.
42. Encrenaz، T. (2004). The solar system (ط. 3rd). Berlin: Springer. ص. 89. ISBN:978-3-540-00241-3.
43. Condie (2022)
44. Alexander N. Krot, Yuri Amelin, Phil Bland, Fred J. Ciesla, James N. Connelly, Andrew M. Davis, Gary R. Huss, I. D. Hutcheon, Kentaro Makide, Kazuhide Nagashima, L. E. Nyquist, Sara S. Russell, Edward R. D. Scott, Kristine Thrane, Hisayoshi Yurimoto und Qingzhu Yin: Origin and chronology of chondritic components: A review. In: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Band 73, 2009, S. 4963–4997.
45. P. Goldreich؛ W.R. Ward (1973). "The Formation of Planetesimals". Astrophysical Journal. ج. 183: 1051–1062. Bibcode:1973ApJ...183.1051G. DOI:10.1086/152291.
46. Alexander N. Krot, Yuri Amelin, Patrick Cassen und Anders Meibom: Young chondrules in CB chondrites from a giant impact in the early solar system. In: Nature. Band 436, 2005, S. 989–992.
47. Silica-rich volcanism in the early solar system dated at 4.565 Ga Poorna Srinivasan, Daniel R. Dunlap, Carl B. Agee, Meenakshi Wadhwa, Daniel Coleff, Karen Ziegler, Ryan Zeigler, Francis M. McCubbin Nature Communications 9, Artikelnr. 3036 (2018)
48. Alex N. Halliday und Robin M. Canup: The accretion of planet Earth. In: Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 2022, S. 1–17, doi:10.1038/s43017-022-00370-0 ( [PDF]).
49. Paolo A. Sossi, Ingo L. Stotz, Seth A. Jacobson, Alessandro Morbidelli und Hugh St. C. O’Neill: Stochastic accretion of the Earth. In: Nature astronomy. 2022, S. 1–21, doi:10.1038/s41550-022-01702-2.
50. Christoph Burkhardt, Thorsten Kleine, Bernard Bourdon, Herbert Palme, Jutta Zipfel, Jon M. Friedrich und Denton S. Ebel: Hf-W mineral isochron for Ca, Al-rich inclusions: Age of the solar system and the timing of core formation in planetesimals. In: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Band 72, 2008, S. 6177–6197.
51. Frank D. Stacey und Conrad H. B. Stacey: Gravitational energy of core evolution: implications for thermal history and geodynamo power. In: Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. Band 110, Nr. 1–2, Januar 1999, ISSN 0031-9201, S. 83–93, Table 2, Model C, doi:10.1016/S0031-9201(98)00141-1 (englisch, online frei verfügbar durch mcgill.ca [PDF; 109 kB]).
52. Charles Frankel, 1996, Volcanoes of the Solar System, Cambridge University Press, pp. 7–8, ISBN:978-0-521-47770-3
53. Guang-Fu Xing, Xiao-Lei Wang, Yusheng Wan, Zhi-Hong Chen, Yang Jiang, Kouki Kitajima, Takayuki Ushikubo und Phillip Gopon: Diversity in early crustal evolution: 4100 Ma zircons in the Cathaysia Block of southern China. In: Scientific Reports. 4. Jahrgang, 3. Juni 2014, 5143, doi:10.1038/srep05143 (englisch).
54. (en) Kleine, T., Munker, C., Mezger, K. et Palme, « A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites », Nature, vol. 418, no 6901,‎ 2002, p. 949-952
55. Siderophile and chalcophile elements in the Archean mantle-crust system. Chunhui Li Proefskrif November 2016 Freie Universität Berlin
56. J.A. Jacobs (1953). "The Earth's inner core". Nature. ج. 172 ع. 4372: 297–298. Bibcode:1953Natur.172..297J. DOI:10.1038/172297a0.
57. van Hunen، J.؛ van den Berg، A.P. (2007). "Plate tectonics on the early Earth: Limitations imposed by strength and buoyancy of subducted lithosphere". Lithos. ج. 103 ع. 1–2: 217–235. Bibcode:2008Litho.103..217V. DOI:10.1016/j.lithos.2007.09.016.
58. Earth's Oldest Rocks Martin J. van Kranendonk, Vickie Bennett, Hugh R.H. Smithies Elsevier, 2007, ISBN 0-08-055247-1, ISBN 978-0-08-055247-7
59. Mathieu Toubol, Thorsten Kleine, Bernard Bourdon, Herbert Palme und Rainer Wieler: Late formation and prolonged differentiation of the Moon inferred from W isotopes in lunar metals. In: Nature. Band 450, 2007, S. 1206–1209.
60. Mathieu GroussonCatégorie:Utilisation du paramètre auteur dans le modèle article, « On a retrouvé la lune ! », في Science & Vie, no 1154, Novembre 2013, ص. 86-90
61. Science & Vie Hors série, La Terre, cette inconnue, page 29/122 (juin 2015).
62. (en) Raluca Rufu, Oded Aharonson et Hagai B. Perets, « A multiple-impact origin for the Moon », Nature.com,‎ 9 janvier 2017
63. (بالإنجليزية) Raluca RufuCatégorie:Utilisation du paramètre auteur dans le modèle article, « A multiple-impact origin for the Moon », في Nature.com, 9 janvier 2017
64. Докембрийская история зарождения и эволюции Солнечной системы и Земли. Статья I (рус.)
65. "The Moon's Formation and Evolution". lpi.usra. Retrieved 11 சனவரி 2026.
66. Сорохтин, Ушаков, 2002, с. 78—79. (О. Г. Сорохтин, С. А. Ушаков. Происхождение земли и её догеологическая история // Развитие Земли. — М.: Изд-во МГУ, 2002. — 506 с. — [Архивировано 21 июля 2022 года.])
67. Биография Земли: основные этапы геологической истории . Дата обращения: 13 января 2020. Архивировано 10 сентября 2021 года.
68. Kleine T., Münker C., Mezger K., Palme H. Rapid accretion and early core formation on asteroids and theterrestrial planets from Hf–W chronometry // Nature. — 2002. — Vol. 418, № 6901. — P. 952—955. — doi:10.1038/nature00982. — Bibcode:2002Natur.418..952K. — PMID 12198541.
69. (بالإنجليزية) Kleine, T., Munker, C., Mezger, K. et Palme, « A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites », في Nature, vol. 418, no 6901, 2002, ص. 949-952
70. Elkins-Tanton, LT (2008). "Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric growth for Earth and Mars". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 271 (1–4): 181–191. Bibcode:2008E&PSL.271..181E. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.062.
71. Hadean Earth and primordial continents: The cradle of prebiotic life M.Santosh, T.Arai, S.Maruyama Geoscience Frontiers8(2), 2017, 309-327
72. Haakon Fossen und Christian Teyssier: Plate tectonics. Chapter 15: Formation of Earth, early tectonics, and continental growth. Cambridge University Press, 2025, ISBN 978-1-108-47623-2, doi:10.1017/9781108568081.
73. Alfvén, Hannes (1976). "ORIGIN OF THE EARTH'S OCEAN AND ATMOSPHERE". Evolution of the Solar System. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Hozzáférés: 2006. augusztus 22. ; ;
74. Martin (2018)
75. Drake, Michael J. (April 2005). "Origin of water in the terrestrial planets". Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 40 (4): 519–527. Bibcode:2005M&PS...40..515J. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00960.x.
76. Condie (2022); Rollinson (2007)
77. Michael J. Drake: Origin of water in the terrestrial planets. In: Meteoritics & Planetary Science. Band 40 (4), 2005, S. 519–527, doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2005.tb00960.x.
78. Norman H. Sleep, Kevin Zahnle und Philip S. Neuhoff: Initiation of clement surface conditions on the earliest Earth. In: PNAS. Band 98 (7), 2001, S. 3666–3672, doi:10.1073/pnas.071045698.
79. Kramers (2003); Rollinson (2007)
80. Lunine (2013), Martin (2018)
81. Humberto L. S. Reis und Evelyn A. M. Sanchez: Precambrian. Hrsg.: David Alderton und Scott Elias, Encyclopedia of Geology. Elsevier Science, 2020, ISBN 978-0-08-102909-1, S. 30.
82. Wilde, Simon A.; Valley, John W.; Peck, William H.; Graham, Colin M. (2001). "Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago". Nature. 409 (6817): 175–178. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..175W. doi:10.1038/35051550. PMID 11196637. S2CID 4319774.
83. John W. Valley, Jade Star Lackey, Aaron J. Cavosie, C. C. Clechenko, Michael J. Spicuzza, Miguel A. S. Basei, Ilya N. Bindeman, V. P. Ferreira, Alcides Nobrega Sial, E. M. King, William H. Peck, Anup K. Sinha und C. S. Wei: 4.4 billion years of crustal maturation: Oxygen isotope ratios of magmatic zircon. In: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. Band 150, 2005, S. 561–580, doi:10.1007/s00410-005-0025-8.
84. The Faint Young Sun Problem ima.umn.edu. Arkistoitu 19.5.2006. Viitattu 29. kesäkuuta 2007. (englanniksi) Web archive 2006
85. Dhuime, B; Hawkesworth, CJ; Cawood, PA; Storey, CD (2012). "A change in the geodynamics of continental growth 3 billion years ago". Science. 335 (6074): 1334–1336. Bibcode:2012Sci...335.1334D. doi:10.1126/science.1216066. PMID 22422979. S2CID 206538532.
86. T. Mark Harrison: The Hadean crust: evidence from> 4 Ga zircons. In: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. Band 37 (1), 2009, S. 479–505, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100151.
87. Korenaga, J (2021). "Hadean geodynamics and the nature of early continental crust". Precambrian Res. 359 106178. Bibcode:2021PreR..35906178K. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2021.106178. S2CID 233441822.
88. Jun Korenaga: Was There Land on the Early Earth? In: Life. Band 11 (11), 2021, S. 1142.
89. Windley, BF; Kusky, T; Polat, A (2021). "Onset of plate tectonics by the Eoarchean". Precambrian Res. 352 105980. Bibcode:2021PreR..35205980W. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105980. S2CID 228993361.
90. (en) John W. Valley, Tyler B. Blum, Kouki Kitajima, Kei Shimizu et Michael J. Spicuzza, « Contemporaneous mobile- and stagnant-lid tectonics on the Hadean Earth », Nature,‎ 4 février 2026 (DOI 10.1038/s41586-025-10066-2 ).
91. Chang, Kenneth (December 2, 2008). "A New Picture of the Early Earth". The New York Times.
92. Michelle Hopkins, T. Mark Harrison und Craig E. Manning: Low heat flow inferred from >4 Gyr zircons suggests Hadean plate boundary interactions. In: Nature. Band 456, Nr. 7221, 27. November 2008, S. 493–496, doi:10.1038/nature07465 (englisch, online frei verfügbar durch researchgate.net).
93. Bruno Dhuime, Chris J. Hawkesworth, Peter A. Cawood und Craig D. Storey: A change in the geodynamics of continental growth 3 billion years ago. In: Science. Band 335 (6074), 2012, S. 1334–1336, doi:10.1126/science.1216066.
94. Guo, M; Korenaga, J (2020). "Argon constraints on the early growth of felsic continental crust". Science Advances. 6 (21) eaaz6234. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.6234G. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaz6234. PMC 7314546. PMID 32671213.
95. Rosas, JC; Korenaga, J (2018). "Rapid crustal growth and efficient crustal recycling in the early Earth: Implications for Hadean and Archean geodynamics". Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 494: 42–49. Bibcode:2018E&PSL.494...42R. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.04.051. S2CID 13666395.
96. Juan Carlos Rosas und Jun Korenaga: Rapid crustal growth and efficient crustal recycling in the early Earth: Implications for Hadean and Archean geodynamics. In: Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Band 494, 2018, S. 42–49, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2018.04.051.
97. Bada, JL; Korenaga, J (2018). "Exposed areas above sea level on Earth >3.5 Gyr ago: Implications for prebiotic and primitive biotic chemistry". Life. 8 (4): 55. Bibcode:2018Life....8...55B. doi:10.3390/life8040055. PMC 6316429. PMID 30400350.
98. J. Monteux, Denis Andrault, Martin Guitreau, H. Samuel und Sylvie Demouchy: A mushy Earth's mantle for more than 500 Myr after the magma ocean solidification. In: Geophys. J. Int. Band 221 (2), 2020, S. 1165–1181, doi:10.1093/gji/ggaa064.
99. Jeffrey L. Bada und Jun Korenaga: Exposed areas above sea level on Earth >3.5 Gyr ago: Implications for prebiotic and primitive biotic chemistry. In: Life. Band 8 (4), 2018, S. 55, doi:10.3390/life8040055.
100. Simone Marchi, William F. Bottke, Linda T. Elkins-Tanton, M. Bierhaus, Kai Wünnemann, Alessandro Morbidelli und David Allen Kring: Widespread mixing and burial of Earth’s Hadean crust by asteroid impacts. In: Nature. Band 511, Nr. 7511, 31. Juli 2014, S. 578–582, doi:10.1038/nature13539 (englisch, online frei verfügbar durch boulder.swri.edu [PDF; 4,0 MB]).
101. The Hadean-Archaean Environment Norman H. Sleep Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2010 Jun; 2(6): a002527. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a002527
102. Lowe, DR; Byerly, GR (2015). "Geologic record of partial ocean evaporation triggered by giant asteroid impacts, 3.29–3.23 billion years ago". Geology. 43 (6): 535–538. Bibcode:2015Geo....43..535L. doi:10.1130/G36665.1.
103. Donald R. Lowe und Gary R. Byerly: Geologic record of partial ocean evaporation triggered by giant asteroid impacts, 3.29–3.23 billion years ago. In: Geology. Band 43 (6), 2015, S. 535–538, doi:10.1130/G36665.1.
104. Valley, John W.; Peck, William H.; King, Elizabeth M.; Wilde, Simon A. (April 2002). "A Cool Early Earth". Geology. 30 (4): 351–354. Bibcode:2002Geo....30..351V. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0351:ACEE>2.0.CO;2. PMID 16196254. Archived from the original on 2013-06-16. Retrieved 2006-08-22.
105. Jeffrey Bennett: Life in the universe. United States: Pearson, 2017, ISBN 978-0-13-408908-9, S. 124–125.
106. Marc D. Norman, Larry A. Taylor, C. Y. Shih und L. E. Nyquist: Crystal accumulation in a 4.2 Ga lunar impact melt. In: Geochimica et Coslochimica Acta. Band 172, 2016, S. 410–429, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2015.09.021.
107. Adam Mann: Bashing holes in the tale of Earth’s troubled youth. In: Nature. Band 553, 2018, doi:10.1038/d41586-018-01074-6.
108. Emily Worsham und Thorsten Kleine: Spätes Bombardement des Monds entschlüsselt. Hrsg.: Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster. (uni-muenster.de [abgerufen am 25. Oktober 2022]).
109. Emily A. Worsham und Thorsten Kleine: Late accretionary history of Earth and Moon preserved in lunar impactites. In: Science Advances. Band 7, Nr. 44, 2021, ISSN 2375-2548, doi:10.1126/sciadv.abh2837, PMID 34714676.
110. Harrison, T. (2009). The Hadean Crust: Evidence from >4 Ga Zircons. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 37, 479-505.
111. Harrison, T. Mark (2020). Hadean Earth. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Bibcode:2020hade.book.....H. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-46687-9. ISBN 978-3-030-46686-2. S2CID 128932829.
112. Harrison، T. Mark (2020). Hadean earth. Cham: Springer. ص. 4. ISBN:978-3030466862.
113. Aaron J. Cavosie, John W. Valley und Simon A. Wilde: The oldest terrestrial mineral record: A review of 4400 to 4000 Ma detrital zircons from Jack Hills, Western Australia. In: Martin J. Van Kranendonk, R. H. Smithies und Vickie C. Bennet, Earth’s Oldest Rocks (Hrsg.): Developments in Precambrian Geology. Band 15. Elsevier, Amsterdam 2007, S. 91–112.
114. Wilde et al. (2001); zie voor een overzicht bv. Cavosie et al. (2007)
115. T. Mark Harrison, Janne Blichert-Toft, Wolfgang Müller, Francis Albarède, Peter Holden und Stephen James Mojzsis: Heterogeneous Hadean hafnium: Evidence of continental crust at 4.4 to 4.5 Ga. In: Science. Band 310, 2005, S. 1947–1950.
116. Nadeau, Serge; Chen, Wei; Reece, Jimmy; Lachhman, Deokumar; Ault, Randy; Faraco, Maria; Fraga, Leda; Reis, Nelson; Betiollo, Leandro (2013-12-01). "Guyana: the Lost Hadean crust of South America?". Brazilian Journal of Geology. 43 (4): 601–606. Bibcode:2013BrJG...43..601N. doi:10.5327/Z2317-48892013000400002.
117. Stephen Wyche, Daniel R. Nelson und Angela Riganti: 4350–3130 Ma detrital zircons in the Southern Cross Granite-Greenstone Terrane, Western Australia: Implications for the early evolution of the Yilgarn craton. In: Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. Band 51, Nr. 1, Februar 2004, ISSN 0812-0099, S. 31–45, doi:10.1046/j.1400-0952.2003.01042.x (englisch).
118. Chun Rong Diwu, Yong Sun, Simon A. Wilde, Hong Liang Wang, Zeng Chan Dong, Hong Zhang und Qian Wang: New evidence for ~4.45 Ga terrestrial crust from zircon xenocrysts in Ordovician ignimbrite in the North Qinling orogenic belt, China. In: Gondwana Research. Band 23, 2013, S. 1484–1490, doi:10.1016/j.gr.2013.01.001.
119. Jean-Louis Paquette, Johildo Salomão Figueirêdo Barbosa, Sébastien Rohais, Simone Cerqueira Pereira Cruz, Philippe Goncalves, Jean-Jacques Peucat, A. B. M. Leal, M. Santos-Pinto und Hervé Martin: The geological roots of South America: 4.1 Ga and 3.7 Ga zircon crystals discovered in N. E. Brazil and N. W. Argentina. In: Precambrian Research. Band 271, 2015, S. 49–55, doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2015.09.027.
120. Serge Nadeau, Wei Chen, Jimmy Reece, Deokumar Lachhman, Randy Ault, Maria Telma Lins Faraco, Lêda Maria Fraga, Nelson Joaquim Reis und Léandro Menezes Betiollo: Guyana: the Lost Hadean crustof South America? In: Brazilian Journal of Geology. Band 43 (4), 2013, S. 601–606, doi:10.5327/Z2317-48892013000400002 ( [PDF]).
121. Analisa C. Maier, Nicole L. Cates, Dustin Trail und Stephen James Mojzsis: Geology, age and field relations of Hadean zircon-bearing supracrustal rocks from Quad Creek, eastern Beartooth Mountains (Montana and Wyoming, USA). In: Chemical Geology. Band 312-313, 2012, S. 47–57, doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.04.005.
122. Tsuyoshi Iizuka, Kenji Horie, Tsuyoshi Komiya, Shigenori Maruyama, Takafumi Hirata, Hiroshi Hidaka und Brian F. Windley: 4.2 Ga zircon xenocryst in an Acasta gneiss from northwestern Canada: Evidence for early continental crust. In: Geology. Band 34, 2006, S. 245–248, doi:10.1130/G22124.1.
123. Lagabrielle Yves, Maury René, Renard Maurice, Mémo visuel de géologie, Paris, Dunod, 2017 p. (ISBN 978-2-10-076928-5), p. 8
124. Jonathan O’Neil, Richard W. Carlson, Don Francis und Ross K. Stevenson: Neodymium-142 Evidence for Hadean Mafic Crust. In: Science. Band 321, Nr. 5897, 26. September 2008, S. 1828–1831, doi:10.1126/science.1161925 (englisch, online frei verfügbar durch researchgate.net).
125. Christian Sole: Geochronology and Petrogenesis of Hadean to Paleoarchean Mafic and Felsic Crust from the Northeastern Superior Province, Canada. In: Diplomarbeit. University of Ottawa, 2021 (uottawa.ca).
126. Geochronology, Dating, and Precambrian Time: The Beginning of the World as We Know It Rafferty, John P, Britannica Educational Publishing, 2010, ISBN 1-61530-195-X, ISBN 978-1-61530-195-9 bls. 160
127. This may be Earth's oldest rock—and it was collected on the moon. 25. Januar 2019, abgerufen am 28. Januar 2019 (englisch).
128. Jeffrey L. Bada: How life began on Earth: a status report. In: Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Band 226, Nr. 1–2, 2004, S. 1–15, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.07.036.
129. Wielkie Bombardowanie nie zniszczyło życia na Ziemi? [online], KopalniaWiedzy.pl [dostęp 2016-10-10] .
130. Borenstein, Seth (19 October 2015). "Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth". Excite. Yonkers, NY: Mindspark Interactive Network. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2015-10-23. Retrieved 2015-10-20.
131. Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. (19 October 2015). "Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 (47). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences: 14518–21. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11214518B. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4664351. PMID 26483481.
132. Elizabeth A. Bell, Patrick Boehnke, T. Mark Harrison und Wendy L. Mao: Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon. In: Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. Band 112 (47). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences 2015, S. 14518–14521, doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112.
133. (بالإنجليزية) Matthew S. Dodd, Dominic Papineau, Tor Grenne, John F. Slack, Martin Rittner, Franco Pirajno, Jonathan O’Neil & Crispin T. S. (2017) Little Evidence for early life in Earth’s oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates, Nature, 543, ص. 60–64 (02 March 2017) doi:10.1038/nature21377
134. Des microfossiles vieux de 3,77 milliards d’années découverts au Canada,
135. Salditt, A; Karr, L; Salibi, E; Le Vay, K; Braun, D; Mutschler, H (2023-03-17). "Ribozyme-mediated RNA synthesis and replication in a model Hadean microenvironment". Nat. Commun. 14 (1): 1495. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.1495S. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37206-4. PMC 10023712. PMID 36932102.
136. Annalena Salditt, Leonie Karr, Elia Salibi, Kristian Le Vay, Dieter Braun und Hannes Mutschler: Ribozyme-mediated RNA synthesis and replication in a model Hadean microenvironment. In: Nat. Commun. Band 14 (1), 2023, S. 1495, doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37206-4.
137. Su، S؛ Wong، G؛ Shi، W؛ Liu، J؛ وآخرون (2016). "Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses". Trends Microbiol. ج. 24 ع. 6: 490–502. DOI:10.1016/j.tim.2016.03.003. PMC:7125511. PMID:27012512.
138. Moody, Edmund; Álvarez-Carretero, Sandra; Mahendrarajah, Tara (12 July 2024). "The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system". Nat. Ecol. Evol. 8 (9): 1654–1666. Bibcode:2024NatEE...8.1654M. doi:10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1. PMC 11383801. PMID 38997462.
139. Edmund Moody, Sandra Álvarez-Carretero und Tara Mahendrarajah: The nature of the last universal common ancestor and its impact on the early Earth system. In: Nat. Ecol. Evol. Band 8 (9), 2024, S. 1654–1666, doi:10.1038/s41559-024-02461-1.
140. M. J. Russell and N. T. Arndt, 2005, Geodynamic and metabolic cycles in the Hadean, Biogeosciences , 2: pp. 97–111.