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HMS Dreadnought (1906)

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Contents
  1. (Top)
  2. Genesis and background
  3. Preliminary designs and Fisher's initiatives
  4. Committee on Designs
  5. Hull and general characteristics
  6. Propulsion and machinery
  7. Electrical and auxiliary systems
  8. Main armament
  9. Secondary and anti-aircraft armament
  10. Fire-control systems
  11. Armour and protection
  12. Construction and trials
  13. Service history
  14. Commanding officers
  15. Technical and tactical assessment
  16. Contemporary comparisons
  17. Cultural impact and legacy
  18. References
HMS Dreadnought (1906)
HMS Dreadnought (1906)
TypeBattleship
BuilderHM Dockyard, Portsmouth
Laid down2 October 1905
Launched10 February 1906
Commissioned11 December 1906
Displacement18,120 long tons normal; 20,730 long tons deep load
Length160.6 m (527 ft)
Installed power23,000 shp (18 Babcock & Wilcox boilers, 4 Parsons direct-drive steam turbines)

HMS Dreadnought was a Royal Navy battleship whose entry into service in 1906 revolutionized naval power. Commissioned as the world's first major warship powered by steam turbines and equipped with a uniform main battery of heavy guns, she rendered existing capital ships obsolete. Conceived under First Sea Lord Sir John Fisher, her radical design prompted a global naval arms race. Although her career included little fleet combat, she achieved fame in 1915 by ramming and sinking German submarine SM U-29, remaining the only battleship to have sunk a submarine.

Genesis and background

In the late 1890s and early 1900s, naval gunnery doctrine assumed battle ranges of approximately 2,000 yards (1,800 m) because fire-control systems were rudimentary and optical sights were crude.[1][2] A typical British pre-dreadnought battleship of the 1890s carried a mixed battery of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns in twin turrets fore and aft and twelve 6-inch (152 mm) quick-firing guns placed in broadside casemates or smaller turrets.[1][2] Casemate guns suffered from severe tactical limitations: they could only fire on their own side, they sat close to the water where heavy swells risked flooding, and their disparate calibres complicated gunnery. Because each gun size had different ballistic characteristics and times of flight, fall-of-shot spotting was difficult. Spotting splashes from smaller shells interfered with spotting the splashes of heavy shells; gunners had to either hold the fire of the secondary armament until the heavy shells landed, negating their faster rate of fire, or fire indiscriminately and make range estimation impossible.[3][4]

Naval gunnery reforms initiated in Britain by Captain Percy Scott and in the United States by Commander William Sims began pushing expected battle ranges out to 5,000 to 6,000 yards (4,600 to 5,500 m).[1][3][4] Scott demonstrated improvements in gunnery accuracy: under his command, the cruiser HMS Scylla achieved an 80 percent hit rate in competitive firings where 20 percent had previously been typical, an achievement he repeated in 1902 with the cruiser HMS Terrible.[5][6] In 1903, Scott was appointed to head the gunnery school HMS Excellent on Whale Island, where he developed systematic methods for long-range gunnery.[7][8] By 1903, experimental firing exercises conducted by the Mediterranean Fleet under Admiral Sir John Fisher demonstrated the viability of spotting fall of shot from spotting tops mounted high on the masts.[9][10][11] In September 1903, the Admiralty authorized comparative firings with HMS Venerable in the Mediterranean and HMS Victorious in the Channel Fleet.[12][13][14] Their joint report in May 1904 concluded that centralized, simultaneous salvo firing with uniform heavy guns could deliver effective fire at ranges up to 8,000 yards (7,200 m).[12][13][14]

Concurrently, the rapid evolution of self-propelled automotive torpedoes posed a severe threat to battle lines.[1][3][4] Torpedoes with expanding ranges discouraged capital ships from closing to the shorter distances where secondary quick-firing guns excelled.[3][4] To stay out of torpedo range, fleets needed to engage at long distances, where 6-inch shells lacked the kinetic energy to penetrate main belt armour.[3][4][12] The logical conclusion was to eliminate intermediate calibres in favour of an all-big-gun battery.[12][13] During the design of the British Lord Nelson-class battleships, naval constructor John Narbeth proposed arming the ships with twelve 12-inch guns, but the Admiralty compromised on four 12-inch and ten 9.2-inch (234 mm) guns.[12][13][15]

The all-big-gun concept was also emerging in other naval powers. In 1903, the Italian chief naval constructor Vittorio Cuniberti designed a battleship carrying twelve 12-inch guns.[4][12][16] After the Italian Navy declined to finance the design, Cuniberti published an article titled 'An Ideal Battleship for the British Navy' in the 1903 edition of Jane's Fighting Ships.[4][12][16] He proposed a 17,000 long tons (17,000 t) warship capable of 24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph), protected by 12 inches (305 mm) of belt armour and armed with twelve 12-inch guns in two twin centerline turrets, two twin wing turrets, and four single waist mountings.[4][12][16] In the United States, Lieutenant Matt H. Signor published an all-big-gun design in the Proceedings of the Naval Institute in March 1902, prompting Professor P. R. Alger to recommend four twin 12-inch turrets.[17][18] At the 1903 Newport Conference, Lieutenant Commander H. S. Poundstone submitted a design with six twin 11-inch (280 mm) turrets in a hexagonal layout.[19][20] Supported by William Sims and President Theodore Roosevelt, the US Navy authorized the South Carolina class with uniform 12-inch guns in March 1905, though construction did not begin until late 1906.[19] In Japan, the battleship Satsuma was laid down in May 1905 with twelve 12-inch guns planned, but shortages forced her completion with four 12-inch and twelve 10-inch (254 mm) guns.[21][22][23]

The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 provided combat evidence.[24][25] At the Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August 1904, the fleets engaged at ranges reaching 14,000 yards (13,000 m).[26] Captain William Pakenham, British naval observer aboard the Japanese battleship Asahi at the Battle of Tsushima on 27-28 May 1905, reported that 12-inch hits caused devastating structural damage, while 10-inch shell impacts passed almost unnoticed.[27][28][29] Furthermore, Admiral Togo's superior speed had enabled him to cross the 'T' of the Russian line.[27][28] These observations convinced British naval planners that both heavy guns and a speed advantage of at least 21 knots were essential for future capital ships.[12][27][28]

Preliminary designs and Fisher's initiatives

Admiral Sir John 'Jacky' Fisher had entered the Royal Navy at age 13 and served as gunnery instructor on HMS Excellent in 1862-1863, later specializing in torpedo and mine warfare.[1][2][30] In 1881, while commanding the ironclad battleship HMS Inflexible, Fisher worked with young naval architect Philip Watts on anti-rolling water tanks to counteract the ship's rolling motion.[1][2][30] Fisher and Watts sketched out an unconventional battleship design armed with four twin turrets containing 16-inch (406 mm) guns, placed with one turret at each end and two en echelon on the waists.[1][2][30] That concept was rejected by Director of Naval Construction Nathaniel Barnaby due to excessive cost, limited broadside firing arcs, and slow rates of fire, but the idea of a heavy, uniform armament remained with Fisher.[1][2][30]

In August 1903, Fisher became Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth, and summoned Chief Constructor W. H. Gard from Malta.[31][32] Fisher tasked Gard with preparing designs for an experimental battleship, HMS Untakeable, and an armored cruiser, HMS Unapproachable, each displacing 15,900 long tons.[31][32][33] Gard's initial battleship design (Variant A) called for sixteen 10-inch (254 mm) guns in eight twin turrets, developing 21 knots with 30,000 indicated horsepower reciprocating machinery.[31][32][33] Fisher favored 10-inch guns based on arguments by Scottish artillerist Sir Andrew Noble, who maintained that lighter 10-inch weapons fired faster and offered sufficient penetration.[34][35][36]

Fisher circulated these preliminary drafts to his closest professional associates.[37][38] Bacon, Madden and Johnson argued for 12-inch (305 mm) guns on both ships..[39][40][41] Bacon argued that at long ranges, rate of fire was subordinated to flight time and splash observation; larger 12-inch shells delivered vastly greater explosive energy.[39][40][41] Under pressure from these arguments, Fisher directed Gard to work out an alternative, Variant B, with eight 12-inch (305 mm) guns in four twin turrets..[33][37] When Fisher took office as First Sea Lord in October 1904, he presented the Cabinet with his naval reform programme and the designs for the armoured cruiser and for battleships A and B..[33]

In late October 1904, Fisher instructed the Department of Naval Construction to evaluate multiple battleship variants with 12-inch guns.[33] Assistant Constructor John Narbeth produced calculations for fast battleships carrying eight or twelve 12-inch guns, comparing reciprocating steam engines and steam turbines.[33][37][38] On 26 November 1904, Narbeth presented three specific proposals: Design A (140.2 m long, 16,500 tons with reciprocating engines, 16,000 tons with turbines, 21 knots), Design B (130 m long, 15,750 tons with reciprocating engines, 15,350 tons with turbines, 20 knots), and Design C (125 m long, 15,000 tons with reciprocating engines, 14,700 tons with turbines, 19 knots), each carrying four twin 12-inch turrets.[42][43][44] In December 1904, the Board of Admiralty formally approved the 12-inch calibre for both battleships and armored cruisers.[45][46][47]

Committee on Designs

To deflect political criticism and review technical options, the Board of Admiralty appointed a special Committee on Designs on 6 December 1904.[43][48][49] While Fisher framed the committee as an independent body of experts, he appointed its members and served as its president, using it to endorse decisions already favored by the Admiralty.[43][48][50] The membership was finalized on 22 December 1904, comprising Rear-Admiral Prince Louis of Battenberg (Director of Naval Intelligence), Engineer Rear-Admiral John Durston (Engineer-in-Chief of the Fleet), Rear-Admiral Alfred L. Winsloe (Commanding Torpedo and Submarine Craft), Captain Henry B. Jackson (Controller of the Navy), Captain John Jellicoe (Director of Naval Ordnance), Captain Charles E. Madden (Assistant Controller), Captain Reginald Bacon (Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord), Philip Watts (Director of Naval Construction), Lord Kelvin (physicist), Professor J. H. Biles (naval architect, University of Glasgow), Sir John Isaac Thornycroft (shipbuilder), Alexander Gracie (managing director of Fairfield Shipbuilding), R. E. Froude (superintendent of the Admiralty Experimental Works), W. H. Gard (Chief Constructor, Portsmouth), Commander Wilfrid Henderson (secretary), and Assistant Constructor E. H. Mitchell (assistant secretary).[50][51][52] Assistant Constructor John Narbeth prepared the preliminary design drafts.[53][54][55]

The committee held its first formal meeting on 3 January 1905, when Fisher announced the Admiralty's criteria: a speed of at least 21 knots, a uniform 12-inch main armament, the maximum practical number of anti-torpedo craft guns, and dimensions that fit existing Admiralty docks at Portsmouth, Devonport, Gibraltar, and Malta.[48][56][57] On 4 January, the committee examined six design variants (E, F, G, D, D1, and D2).[53][54][55] Designs E and F featured superfiring turrets along the centerline: Design E carried twelve 12-inch guns (three twin turrets forward, three aft), while Design F carried ten guns (three twin forward, two aft), both at 21,000 and 19,000 tons respectively with reciprocating machinery.[53][54][55] Jellicoe objected to superfiring turrets because blast overpressure from upper guns would impair the open sighting hoods on the roofs of lower turrets, and the committee feared a single shell could disable multiple turrets.[53][54][58] Design G grouped six turrets in two triangular clusters fore and aft, but was discarded because wide hull lines would be needed at the extremities to accommodate magazines.[53][54][55]

The committee next evaluated Design D and its derivatives, prepared by Narbeth, which featured six twin 12-inch turrets: one forward, one aft, and two pairs of wing turrets on each beam.[59][60][61] Design D used reciprocating engines; Design D2 substituted steam turbines; and Design D1 shifted the wing turrets closer to the ship's center.[53][60][61] To save weight, it was proposed to replace the after pair of wing turrets with a single centreline turret placed between the engine and boiler rooms..[62][63] This layout was designated Design H and was considered on 13 January 1905..[62][63] On 18 January, the committee reviewed reciprocating versus turbine configurations for Design H.[58][62][63] The turbine version displaced 17,750 tons with 23,000 shp, whereas the reciprocating version required 18,850 tons and 23,500 ihp to achieve 21 knots, saving 1,100 long tons in displacement and 700 tons in machinery weight.[58][62][63] Turbines were finally chosen only after Sir Charles Parsons agreed to help with the detailed design of the machinery; sources date the decision to 18 January or to 25 January..[58][62][64][65][66]

Subcommittees refined remaining design elements through late January and February 1905.[62][63][67] In evaluating shaft arrangements, four shafts were chosen over three, five, or six.[65][68][69] Russian damage reports indicating that the battleship Tsesarevich survived an explosive mine or torpedo hit due to her internal bulkhead led the committee to install continuous longitudinal torpedo bulkheads abreast the magazines.[62][63][70] To prevent displacement from increasing, the waterline belt armor was reduced by 1 inch (25 mm).[62][63][70] For anti-torpedo boat defense, the committee chose 76 mm (3-inch) 12-pounder guns over 102 mm (4-inch) guns, reasoning that the smaller caliber permitted more guns and a higher rate of fire.[62][63][67] On 23 January, the committee adopted complete subdivision below the main protective deck, eliminating longitudinal doors and minimizing bulkhead penetrations for steam lines and electrical cables, with independent ventilation and drainage pumps for each compartment.[62][63][67] At Fisher's insistence, the clipper bow of early drafts was replaced by a stem resembling a ram, though the ramming weapon was omitted.[63][67][71] The committee finalized its recommendations in March 1905, advising that no further battleships be ordered until Dreadnought completed extensive trials.[71][72][73]

Hull and general characteristics

To achieve 21 knots within a constrained displacement, John Narbeth designed a novel hull form.[74][75][76] The forebody featured fine forward lines, a virtually rectangular midship section shifted aft, and a pronounced flare on the after frames to ensure wake flow without turbulence.[74][75][76] Initial scale testing indicated that 23,000 shp would propel this hull form at 21 knots.[74][75][76] R. E. Froude, director of the Admiralty Experimental Works at Haslar in Gosport, doubted the figures and tested five models of traditional form, which indicated that 28,000 ihp would be required.[74][75] After seven model iterations, Froude confirmed that Narbeth's hull reduced required power by 5,000 hp.[72][74][75] This power saving eliminated an entire row of boilers, shortening the hull by 8 metres and reducing displacement by 1,500 tons.[74][75][76]

Dreadnought had an overall length of 527 ft (160.6 m), a length between perpendiculars of 490 ft (149.4 m), a beam of 82 ft 1 in (25.0 m), and a draught of 29 ft 7.5 in (9.0 m) at deep load.[77] Her normal displacement was 18,120 long tons (18,410 t), increasing to 20,730 long tons (21,060 t) at deep load, roughly 3,000 long tons more than the preceding Lord Nelson class.[77][78][79] On 8 September 1906, empty ship weight stood at 17,012 long tons (17,284 t); with 900 tons of coal and 210 tons of provisions, normal displacement reached 18,122 long tons (18,412 t); at full load with 2,100.8 tons of coal, 1,120 tons of oil, 248.5 tons of boiler water, and maximum stores, her displacement reached 21,977 long tons (22,328.6 t).[78][79][80] Her metacentric height was 5.6 ft (1.7 m) at deep load, and she was fitted with a complete double bottom.[81]

The hull structure was optimized for rapid assembly, using a limited range of standardized plate thicknesses and structural shapes.[74][82][83] The hull weighed only 5,000 tons, comparable to that of the 1894 battleship HMS Majestic despite Dreadnought's larger dimensions.[74][76][83] A forecastle deck elevated the bow freeboard to 8.54 metres, giving good seakeeping in heavy seas.[84][85][86] The high metacentric height increased the ship's roll period.[87][88][89] Active water anti-rolling tanks had proved ineffective on Inflexible and Colossus and were rejected; instead, unusually large bilge keels running nearly half the hull length were installed, though rolling in rough weather remained pronounced.[87][88][89]

Traditional practice placed officer quarters in the stern and ratings forward in the forecastle, but Dreadnought reversed this arrangement.[90][91][92] The admiral's sea cabin, officers' wardroom, and officers' cabins were moved forward beneath the bridge, closer to their action stations, while crew mess decks were moved aft nearer the engine and boiler rooms.[90][91][92] This arrangement proved unpopular because officers were berthed near noisy auxiliary machinery, dynamos, and ventilation fans, while the turbines made the stern quiet and comfortable.[90][91][92] The layout was repeated in subsequent British dreadnought classes until reverted in the 1910 King George V class.[90][91][92] Her complement numbered 692 to 700 officers and ratings upon completion in 1906-1907, rising to 732 in 1909 and 810 by 1916.[77][93]

Steering was accomplished by twin parallel balanced rudders of 15.8 square metres each, placed behind the inner propeller shafts.[65][68][94] At speeds above 10 knots, Dreadnought handled well, with a tactical diameter of 185 to 190 metres at 15 degrees of rudder.[65][68][94] At slow speeds and while moving astern, the direct-drive turbines and smaller high-speed screws reduced propeller thrust, making her sluggish and prone to turning uncontrollably.[65][68][94] During sea trials on 10 October 1906, putting the rudder over to 35 degrees at full speed jammed the steering gear as hydrodynamic water pressure overwhelmed the tiller mechanism.[95][96][97] After near collisions in the Strait of Bonifacio in early 1907, more powerful steering machinery was installed between August and November 1907.[95][96]

Dreadnought's boat complement originally comprised two 14-metre steam pinnaces, one 11-metre steam pinnace, one 13-metre sailing launch, three 10-metre cutters, four 8-metre whalers, two gigs (10-metre and 9-metre), and a 5-metre dinghy.[93][98] Because the blast overpressure from the wing and after turrets swept the upper deck, boats could only be stowed on a raised superstructure around the second funnel.[87][88] Boats were nested on gantries to save space: an 8-oared dinghy inside a 14-oared cutter inside an 18-oared launch.[87][88][89] A 13-metre derrick crane was attached to the main tripod mast to handle the heavy steam craft.[87][88] Two whalers were suspended from elongated davits on the forward superstructure wings at bridge level to clear the blast zone of the wing turrets.[87][88][89]

For harbor defence, the ship was equipped with steel anti-torpedo nets covering three-quarters of the hull length, supported by booms.[99][100][101] Captain Reginald Bacon designed a mechanism that lowered or raised the nets within three to four minutes, hauling the furled net into a single continuous roll along the upper deck shelf.[99][100][101] The nets were removed early in the First World War because their fittings caused speed losses of up to a knot and modern torpedoes carried net-cutting shears.[102][103][104] Ground tackle comprised three 6.35-tonne (125 cwt) stockless bower anchors, one 2.3-tonne stream anchor, and one 760-kg kedge anchor.[98]

Propulsion and machinery

Dreadnought was the first capital ship to replace vertical triple-expansion reciprocating steam engines with steam turbines.[65][68][105] The machinery contract was awarded on 24 June 1905 to Vickers, Sons & Maxim for £252,533, but because Vickers had limited experience building high-power naval turbines, the turbines were subcontracted to the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company and built at Wallsend-on-Tyne.[65][68][106] Her propulsion installation comprised two paired sets of direct-drive Parsons turbines housed in two watertight compartments separated by a centerline longitudinal bulkhead.[107][108][109] Each set consisted of a high-pressure ahead turbine and a high-pressure astern turbine driving the outer shaft, and a low-pressure ahead turbine and a low-pressure astern turbine driving the inner shaft.[108][109] Cruising turbines rated at 6,000 shp total were coupled directly to the forward ends of the inner shafts to improve fuel economy at 14 knots.[65][68][69]

Steam was supplied by 18 Babcock & Wilcox coal-fired water-tube boilers with large and small tubes, arranged in three boiler rooms with two transversely mounted six-boiler sections each.[107][110][111] The boilers operated at an working pressure of 250 psi (1,724 kPa; 17.6 kgf/cm2), reduced to 185 psi (1,276 kPa) at the turbine throttles.[107][112][113] Total heating surface was 5,146.8 square metres (55,400 sq ft) and total grate area was 148.55 square metres (1,599 sq ft).[98][114] Each boiler was fitted with six fuel oil sprayers capable of injecting 960 pounds (435 kg) of oil per hour at 150 psi pressure to spray over the coal bed, accelerating combustion.[106][112][113]

The engines drove four shafts with three-bladed manganese-bronze propellers originally 8 ft 10 in (2.7 m) in diameter with a blade area of 3.0 square metres.[65][114][115] In June 1907, inner screws of 3.71 square metres area and outer screws of 2.6 square metres were substituted to equalize shaft loads, but maximum speed dropped by half a knot; an October 1907 refit fitted 8 ft 8 in screws without notable benefit.[114] The designed output was 23,000 shp (17,000 kW) at 320 rpm for a design speed of 21 knots.[107][116][117] During eight-hour full-power trials off Polperro on 9 October 1906, the plant developed 27,018 shp (20,147 kW) at 328 rpm, reaching an average speed of 21.05 knots, with measured-mile runs of 21.6 knots and 21.78 knots at 27,899 shp.[65][68][107]

The cruising turbines proved unsatisfactory in service.[118][119][120] Repeated cycles of heating and cooling caused thermal stress that fractured blading in the second and third stages and eventually cracked the casing, causing steam leaks at full power.[118][119][120] Boiler adjustments showed that the main turbines could cruise economically without them; the cruising turbines were disconnected from the shafts and carried as dead weight until incomplete removal works commenced during her 1918 refit.[114][118][119] Coal stowage was 2,868 long tons (2,914 t), with an additional 1,120 long tons (1,140 t) of fuel oil.[106][117][121] Normal cruising consumption was 127 tons of coal per day at 10 knots, increasing to 360 tons per day at full speed.[121] Range was 6,620 nautical miles (12,260 km; 7,620 mi) at 10 knots (4,340 miles on coal alone) and 4,890 nautical miles at 19.5 knots.[106][121]

Electrical and auxiliary systems

Electrical power was generated by four Siemens dynamos producing 1,000 amperes at 100 volts direct current (DC), with an aggregate capacity of 410 kW.[87][88] Two generators were driven by Brotherhood auxiliary steam engines, while two backup generators were driven by Mirrlees diesel engines to ensure electrical service if steam was lost.[87][122][123] The port diesel engine suffered severe vibration and broke down completely; it was replaced in 1908 by a reciprocating steam engine, while the starboard diesel was retained after the deck below was stiffened.[122][123]

The main distribution system used a Cowan switchboard feeding a ring main to power auxiliary equipment, avoiding steam piping through watertight bulkheads.[87][88][123] Electrically driven machinery included five lifts, eight coaling winches, seven bilge pumps, eight sanitary pumps, 77 ventilation fans, ammunition hoists, workshop tools, the baker's oven, ice-making and refrigeration plants, and 1,342 incandescent lighting lamps of 16 to 50 candlepower.[87][88][124] The capstan engine alone retained hydraulic power.[87][88] The telephone network used 15-volt converters instead of ampoule batteries.[87][88] The telephones could be powered from batteries in an emergency..[123]

The ship was fitted with twelve 36-inch (914 mm) searchlights: two on the navigation bridge, four on the forward superstructure, four amidships, and two aft.[98][125] A 24-inch (610 mm) signaling projector was mounted beneath the spotting top.[98][125] In 1917, six searchlights were removed, while four remaining 36-inch lights were concentrated on a raised platform on the after tripod mast, controlled remotely by telephone from the compass platform.[103][125][126] The ship carried a long-range Tune C Mk II wireless set, which was replaced in 1910 by a Standard Installation Mk II and supplemented by a short-range Type 3 set.[93] Type 13 and Type 16 sets were added in 1917 and a Type 31 fire-control set in 1918, housed in a converted 76 mm magazine and a new wireless office near turret X..[93] The magnetic compasses were supplemented by an experimental Siemens electric master compass, which proved unreliable and was replaced in 1911 by an Anschutz gyrocompass and in 1917-1918 by Sperry gyros.[93][103]

Main armament

Dreadnought carried ten 45-calibre BL 12-inch Mark X guns mounted in five twin Mark BVIII gun turrets.[84][85][90] To speed construction, ordnance was allocated from guns ordered for the Lord Nelson class: Vickers manufactured the centerline turrets (X and Y) at £69,860 each, while Armstrong Whitworth manufactured the forward turret (A) and wing turrets (P and Q) at £70,092 each.[84][85] The wing turrets featured a revised roller path and reduced turntable diameter, allowing barbette armor thickness to increase without adding weight.[127][128][129] The forward turret ('A') and two after turrets ('X' and 'Y') were situated on the centerline, separated by the after superstructure and boat deck, while 'P' and 'Q' turrets were positioned on the port and starboard wings of the forward superstructure.[90][130]

Each gun barrel weighed 58 tons 13 cwt with breech mechanism.[131][132][133] The barrel comprised a nickel-steel inner 'A' tube, an outer 'A' tube, wire winding of high-tensile steel wire (tensile strength 150 kg/mm2) wound along the entire barrel length from breech to muzzle, and a jacket with a Welin interrupted-screw breech block.[131][132][134] Propellant charges consisted of 117 kilograms (258 lb) of cordite MD45 in two quarter-charges contained in silk cloth cartridges.[131][132][134] The projectile weighed 850 pounds (386 kg), discharged at a muzzle velocity of 2,725 ft/s (831 m/s).[135][136] The turrets permitted elevation from -3 degrees to +13.5 degrees, providing a range of 16,450 yards (15,040 m) with 2 crh armour-piercing APC Mark VI and high-explosive HE Mark IIa shells.[135][136] From 1915, more aerodynamic 4 crh APC Mark VIa and semi-armour-piercing Mark VIIa shells extended maximum range to 18,850 yards (17,240 m).[135][136] In 1918, heavy 'Greenboy' APC Mark VIIa projectiles were adopted.[136]

Shells and propellant charges were hoisted from the magazines by central revolving tubes into a working chamber below the gunhouse, transferred to a two-stage rope-operated hoist cage, and delivered directly to the breech.[137][138][139] The loading cage aligned with the breech via guide rails, enabling reloading at any angle of elevation.[137][138][139] Sustained rate of fire was 1.5 to 2 rounds per minute.[135] Dreadnought carried 80 rounds of ammunition per gun (40 armor-piercing, 40 common/explosive), with 8 additional practice rounds per gun.[77]

The turret disposition allowed an eight-gun broadside across an arc from 60 degrees before the beam to 50 degrees abaft the beam.[90][137] Beyond these limits, six guns could fire directly astern and four ahead.[90][137] If aimed within 1 degree of the keel line, six guns could train forward or aft, but firing caused severe blast blast damage to bridge structures and decks.[90][137] Firing trials conducted off the Isle of Wight on 18 October 1906 confirmed that the hull and turret turntables withstood eight-gun broadside stresses without structural deformation, and the main battery served throughout the war without major mechanical failure.[137][138][139]

Secondary and anti-aircraft armament

Anti-torpedo craft defense was assigned to twenty-seven 50-calibre quick-firing 12-pounder 18 cwt Mark I guns (76 mm) on single PIV mountings.[137][138][140] The gun fired a 12.5-pound (5.7 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,660 ft/s (810 m/s), with a rate of fire of 20 rounds per minute..[140][141][142] Elevation ranged from -10 degrees to +20 degrees, with a maximum range of 9,300 yards (8,500 m).[140][143][144] The ship stowed 300 rounds per gun, totaling 8,100 rounds plus 1,016 practice rounds.[140] Choosing 76 mm guns was heavily criticized because the light shell lacked stopping power against modern destroyers.[137][138][139]

Gun distribution proved problematic. Space constraints prevented grouping them in the superstructure, so guns were dispersed across the ship: 12 were mounted in the forward and after superstructure, seven on turret roofs (two each on wing turrets P and Q, one each on A, X, and Y), and eight on dismountable field mountings on the forecastle and quarterdeck.[141][142][145] The deck mountings lay within reach of muzzle blast and were normally kept dismantled, to be set up only before use.[108][109][145][146][147] Firing trials in December 1906 proved that handling them was impractical; in 1906-1907, three deck guns were remounted on the centerline turret roofs, and in December 1907 the remaining deck mountings were removed, reducing the battery to 24 guns.[108][109][145] During the April-May 1915 refit, two guns were relocated from A turret roof to the quarterdeck, and in 1916 two guns were removed from the after superstructure, leaving 22.[145][148] In 1917, two guns near the conning tower were removed and two quarterdeck guns converted to high-angle mountings, leaving 18 guns by late war.[145]

To counter aerial threats, two 6-pounder (57 mm) Hotchkiss Mark Ic guns on high-angle mountings were installed on the quarterdeck in 1915.[140][141][142] They fired a 6-pound (2.72 kg) shell at 1,765 ft/s (538 m/s) with elevation from -8 degrees to +60 degrees, with a maximum ceiling of 10,000 feet (3,000 m) but an effective range of only 1,200 yards (1,100 m).[140][149] In 1916, these were replaced by two QF 3-inch 20 cwt guns on Mark II high-angle mountings.[140][141][142] These fired a 12.5-pound shell at 2,517 ft/s (767 m/s) at up to 29 rounds per minute, with elevation from -10 degrees to +90 degrees and an effective ceiling of 23,500 feet (7,200 m).[140][141][142] Two of the 12-pounder guns on the quarterdeck were given high-angle mounts for anti-aircraft duties.[145] According to descriptions, by the end of the war the ship carried four 76 mm anti-aircraft guns.[141][142] Three 7.62 mm Maxim machine guns were carried, with 5,000 rounds per barrel.

Dreadnought carried five submerged 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes: two on each beam and one in the stern.[90][141][142] These were the first British Model B submerged tubes, which incorporated an electrically actuated retraction bar to prevent torpedo deflection while running at high speed.[141][142][150] The ship carried 23 Whitehead Mark III torpedoes, plus six 14-inch (356 mm) torpedoes for her steam picket boats.[90][151] The unguided stern tube had no guide bar and was removed during the August 1917 refit, its warhead magazine being converted into an anti-aircraft ammunition locker.[141][142][150] In 1918, flying-off platforms were designed for 'A' and 'Y' turrets to operate wheeled fighter aircraft, but the work was cancelled at the armistice.[103][126][152]

Fire-control systems

Dreadnought was armed for long-range engagements and was given a novel fire-control system.[141][142][153][154] The control positions for the main armament were in the spotting top at the head of the foremast and on a platform on the roof of the signal tower.[141][142][153][154] Each position mounted a 9 ft (2.7 m) Barr and Stroud FQ-2 coincidence rangefinder.[141][153][154] Range and bearing data were transmitted to a Dumaresq mechanical analogue calculator, which resolved the target's course, speed, and deflection, feeding electrical signals into Vickers range clocks in the Transmitting Stations (TS) situated on the middle deck below the armored deck.[141][153][154] The Transmitting Stations calculated sight settings and electrically communicated range and deflection data to receiver dials inside each turret, while backup communication used voice pipes and telephones.[141][153][154] Target movement was plotted on mechanical plotting tables to project future target positions.[154][155]

Gunfire trials against the obsolete ironclad HMS Hero in 1907 revealed critical vulnerabilities: explosive fragments struck the foretop, severed all exposed wiring on the tripod, and smashed the armored voice pipes.[156] Furthermore, Captain Bacon pointed out that the Transmitting Station on the middle deck was vulnerable to plunging fire penetrating the upper belt.[141][142] During a 1908-1909 refit, the main Transmitting Station was moved down to the platform deck, occupying space previously allotted to 12-pounder ammunition.[141][142] External range indicators on the masts for concentration firing were removed in 1910-1911.[155][157][158]

In 1912-1913, the fire-control system was thoroughly upgraded.[155][156][157] An Argo gyro-stabilized 9-foot rangefinder was installed in the foretop, an FQ-2 rangefinder was added to the compass platform, and an FT-8 rangefinder was installed at the rear of 'A' turret roof.[153][155][156] Turrets 'A' and 'Y' received sight-setting receivers and communications gear to serve as secondary control positions.[153][155][156] In 1914, Evershed bearing transmitters were fitted in the foretop.[126][155][159] A Mark I Dreyer Fire Control Table, which combined the functions of the Dumaresq and the range clock, was installed in the main Transmitting Station.[156] It was fitted during repairs between 24 April and 25 May 1916, when a director was also mounted on the foretop.[103][126][155][156][157]

A prototype director firing system was tested in Dreadnought in 1909, but removed because it interfered with her flag duties.[160][161] During her May-June 1915 refit, preparations were made to install a production director, and 9-foot rangefinders were installed in all five turrets.[153][156] The tripod-mounted director tower was fitted on the foretop during her refit at Rosyth between April and June 1916.[155][156][157] The director transmitted elevation and training angles directly to follow-the-pointer dials in the turrets, enabling the master gunnery officer to fire all five turrets simultaneously by electrical trigger at the optimum moment of roll.[153][155][160] In 1917-1918, a Henderson gyro-stabilized firing mechanism was added to discharge the guns automatically as the ship rolled through the horizontal.[155][157][158] The 76 mm batteries were coordinated using a telaupad telephone system connecting gun layers with officers on the spotting tops.[153][155][157]

Armour and protection

Dreadnought's protective scheme utilized Krupp cemented (KC) armor backed by teak, with Krupp non-cemented (KNC) steel on decks and roofs.[162][163][164][165] The waterline belt had a height of 4.06 metres (13.3 ft), extending from the after edge of 'A' barbette to the center of 'Y' barbette, covering 60 percent of the waterline.[163][164][166] The main lower belt was 11 in (279 mm) thick, tapering to 7 in (178 mm) at its lower edge 1.52 metres below the design waterline.[162][163][164][165] Abreast 'A' barbette, the belt reduced to 9 in (229 mm).[162][165][167][168] Forward from 'A' barbette to the stem, a 6 in (152 mm) belt protected the waterline, while aft to the stern post the belt was 4 in (102 mm) thick.[162][163][164][165] An 8 in (203 mm) belt sat above the main belt, but only ran as high as the main deck.[162][164][165][169] An 8-inch bulkhead angled obliquely inward from the after end of the main belt to the side of 'X' barbette, enclosing the armored citadel.[162][163][164][165]

A severe weakness in the belt armor was its vertical immersion.[162][163][164] At normal load, the top edge of the 11-inch belt rose only 2 ft (0.61 m) above the water, and at full load (9.22 m draught), the 11-inch belt was submerged 12 inches (300 mm) underwater, leaving only the 8-inch upper belt protecting the waterline.[162][163][164][165] Above the upper belt, the hull plating consisted merely of 13 mm mild ship steel, leaving the funnel uptakes unarmored.[163][164][166]

The turret faces and sides had 11 inches (279 mm) of armor and the roofs 3 inches (76 mm) of Krupp non-cemented armor.[156][169] The turret rear was 330 mm (13 in) thick.[170][171] Barbettes measured 11 inches thick on exposed outer faces, thinning to 8 inches (203 mm) on inner faces above the main deck; 'X' barbette was 8 inches all around.[156][170][171][172] Below the main deck, barbette plating was reduced to 4 inches (102 mm), except for 'A' barbette (8 inches) and 'Y' barbette (11 inches).[156][170][171][172] The forward conning tower had 11-inch walls, a 3-inch KNC roof, and an 8-inch mild-steel communication tube to the Transmitting Station.[156][169][170][171] The after signal tower had 8-inch walls, a 3-inch roof, and a 4-inch communication tube.[156][169]

Horizontal protection comprised three decks.[169][170][171] The main deck was 0.75 to 1 in (19 to 25 mm) thick.[156][169][170][171] The middle deck was 1.75 in (44 mm) thick on the flat and 2.75 in (70 mm) where it sloped down to meet the bottom edge of the main belt.[156][169][170] Over the magazines for 'A' and 'Y' turrets, deck thickness was increased to 3 inches on both flat and slope.[156][169][170] The lower deck forward was 1.5 inches (38 mm), and aft was 2 inches (51 mm), thickening to 3 inches over the steering gear.[156][169][170][171] Following the Battle of Jutland in 1916, where British battlecruisers suffered cordite magazine explosions from plunging fire, an additional 0.75-inch (19 mm) layer of steel was riveted over the middle deck above the magazines on 27 January 1917, and flash-tight scuttles were fitted to magazine handling rooms on 19 August 1917.[103][126][169]

Underwater protection was designed to withstand two hits from 457 mm torpedoes carrying 70 kg TNT warheads.[173][174][175] Rather than a single continuous torpedo bulkhead, Dreadnought used localized internal armored bulkheads 51 mm (2 inches) thick shielding the magazines of 'A', 'X', and 'Y' turrets, increasing to 102 mm (4 inches) abreast wing turrets 'P' and 'Q' to compensate for their proximity to the outer hull.[156][169][173][174] The double bottom and wing compartments were divided by watertight transverse and longitudinal bulkheads into numerous small cells, with coal bunkers spaced 5 metres from the outer skin acting as energy absorbers.[176][177][178] A counter-flooding system was installed to correct list resulting from underwater damage.[176][177][178]

Construction and trials

Dreadnought was built at HM Dockyard, Portsmouth, selected for its rapid construction record and strict weight discipline.[179][180][181] To achieve Fisher's target of building the ship within one year, materials were stockpiled in advance, and prefabrication began in May 1905, with approximately 6,000 man-weeks of labor expended before formal keel-laying.[179][182][183] By July 1905, 2,200 tons of steel plate had arrived at Portsmouth; boilers and engines were ordered in June, and armor was ordered in August.[184] The ship was formally laid down on Building Slip No. 5 on 2 October 1905.[179][182][185] Slipway No. 5 was surrounded by timber screens to prevent espionage.[179][186]

The shipyard labor force was increased from 1,100 to 3,000 men.[179][186][187] Workers labored a mandatory 69-hour, six-day week from 6:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. with only a 30-minute lunch break, compared to the normal 48-hour yard week.[179][182][186] Double-shifting was rejected because it would have required 6,000 of Portsmouth's 8,000 workers, halting all other maintenance and construction.[186][187][188] Construction progressed rapidly: by Day 6 (7 October), transverse bulkheads and middle-deck framing were in place; by Day 20, the stem was erected and hull plating was well advanced; by Day 55, upper deck beams were positioned; by Day 83, upper deck plating was complete; and on Day 125 (4 February 1906), the hull structure was finished.[179][182][186]

Dreadnought was launched on 10 February 1906, four months and eight days after keel-laying.[184][189][190] King Edward VII christened the ship with a bottle of Australian wine, which required multiple blows to break against the bow.[184][190][191][192] The launching ceremony was curtailed because the court was in mourning for King Christian IX of Denmark, Queen Alexandra's father, who had died twelve days earlier.[193][194] Fitting out took place in No. 15 Dock.[193][194] By June 1906 the boilers and turbines had been installed, the main armament was mounted by July, and in August the superstructure was completed and the foremast was set up.[184] Chief Constructor Thomas Mitchell was knighted for his management of the build.[195]

Steam was raised on 1 October 1906, and on 3 October Dreadnought sailed for preliminary sea trials at Devonport, exactly one year and one day after her keel was laid.[187][196][197] While leaving the fitting basin, the ship briefly touched bottom on an ebb tide and had to wait an hour for the tide to refloat her.[184] Preliminary steaming, seakeeping, and gun trials were completed by early December.[184][196] On 3 December, returning to port after trials, she was damaged while entering the basin, which required brief docking for repairs.[198] She was commissioned into the fleet on 11 December 1906, fifteen months after she was laid down.[196]

On 5 January 1907, under the command of Captain Reginald Bacon, Dreadnought departed Portsmouth for an extensive Atlantic shakedown cruise to test her turbine propulsion and guns.[199][200][201][202] She visited Arosa Bay in Spain, Gibraltar, and Golfo d'Aranci in Sardinia, before crossing the Atlantic to Port of Spain, Trinidad, arriving on 5 February.[199][200][201] She spent six weeks in Trinidad conducting gunnery calibration, torpedo drills, searchlight exercises, and full-power maneuvers, returning to Portsmouth on 23 March.[199][200][201][202] Between Gibraltar and Trinidad (3,430 miles), she averaged 17 knots (31 km/h).[200][201][203] For the return from Trinidad to Portsmouth, one account gives an average of 19 knots (35 km/h), while another gives 17 knots over 3,980 miles between 18 and 23 March, with speed limited by damage to the port rudder.[200][201][203][204] The voyage demonstrated that steam turbines could sustain high speeds without the bearing wear and breakdowns typical of reciprocating engines.[205][206] However, the cruise also revealed that the forward funnel blew hot exhaust gases and soot directly into the spotting top on the foremast, blinding observers and making the ladder inside the mast uncomfortably hot.[105][207][208][209]

Service history

Following her trials cruise, Dreadnought was commissioned on 27 May 1907 as flagship of the Nore Division of the newly reorganized Home Fleet.[210][211] Vice-Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman hoisted his flag aboard in April 1907, and she served as flagship of the Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet, until 1911.[210][211][212] On 5 August 1907, King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra inspected the ship, taking a short cruise to the Isle of Wight.[213] On 26 May 1909, a ruptured auxiliary steam pipe caused a minor fire in boiler room A, injuring several stokers.[213]

In February 1910, Dreadnought became the target of the Dreadnought hoax.[214][215] Prankster Horace de Vere Cole sent a forged telegram to the Admiralty purporting to represent Sir Charles Hardinge of the Foreign Office, requesting an official reception for members of the Abyssinian royal family.[215] Cole and his friends, including writer Virginia Woolf, boarded the battleship in elaborate theatrical disguise, turbans, and dark makeup.[214][215] Received with full ceremonial honors and a marine guard, the group toured the warship, repeating fabricated phrases such as 'Bunga! Bunga!' to express their admiration.[214][215] When Cole revealed the hoax to the press on 12 February, the incident embarrassed the Admiralty and was widely reported across Europe.[215][216]

In March 1911, Dreadnought was replaced as fleet flagship by HMS Neptune and transferred to the 1st Division of the Home Fleet.[213][217][218] She participated in the Coronation Fleet Review for King George V at Spithead on 24 June 1911.[213][217] In October 1912, she served as target-tow ship during fleet trials evaluating Sir Percy Scott's new director firing installation.[213] The 1st Division had been renamed the 1st Battle Squadron earlier in 1912, and in December 1912 Dreadnought was transferred from it to become flagship of the 4th Battle Squadron.[213][218] Between September and December 1913, she conducted training cruises in the Mediterranean.[217][218]

At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Dreadnought served as flagship of the 4th Battle Squadron, based at Scapa Flow under the Grand Fleet.[213][218][219] On 10 December 1914, she was relieved as squadron flagship by HMS Benbow.[219][220] On 18 March 1915, while returning to Cromarty Firth from fleet maneuvers in the Pentland Firth, Lieutenant Commander Piercy sighted a periscope at a distance of 1,300 metres (8 cables).[211][213][218] The periscope belonged to the German submarine SM U-29, commanded by submarine ace Otto Weddigen, who had previously sunk the cruisers Aboukir, Hogue, and Cressy in a single day, and the cruiser Hawke.[210][211][213] After firing a torpedo at HMS Neptune, U-29 broke the surface immediately ahead of Dreadnought.[221] Dreadnought increased speed to 17.5 knots and altered course to ram, firing several rounds from her 76 mm guns.[211][213][218] At 12:35 p.m., her bow rammed the submarine on the starboard side, cutting U-29 in two.[211][218][221] The bow of the submarine reared out of the water, allowing British crewmen to read her hull markings before she sank with all hands.[211][218] Dreadnought narrowly missed colliding with HMS Temeraire, which was also attempting to ram.[221][222] This action made Dreadnought the only battleship in naval history to have sunk a submarine.[211][218][221][223]

Dreadnought was undergoing a refit at Portsmouth from 18 April to 22 June 1916 and missed the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916.[152][224][225] On 9 July 1916, she became flagship of the 3rd Battle Squadron, based at Sheerness on the River Thames, leading a squadron of King Edward VII-class pre-dreadnoughts intended to deter coastal raids by German battlecruisers.[152][223][226] During this period, her anti-aircraft guns engaged German Gotha bombers flying up the Thames toward London.[210][213][223][226] She returned to the Grand Fleet in March 1918, resuming her role as flagship of the 4th Battle Squadron, but was paid off at Rosyth on 7 August 1918.[152][221][226]

On 25 February 1919, Dreadnought was recommissioned as a tender to HMS Hercules, acting as a parent accommodation ship for the Reserve Fleet.[213][223][226][227] She was placed on the disposal list on 31 March 1920.[213][227][228] On 9 May 1921, she was sold for scrap to shipbreaker Thos. W. Ward for £44,750 (recorded as £36,630 in some accounts based on £2. 4/- per ton on 16,650 assessed tons).[213][227][228][229] On 2 January 1923, she was towed to Ward's shipbreaking yard at Inverkeithing, Scotland, and dismantled.[213][227][230][231]

Commanding officers

During her service, Dreadnought was commanded by twelve captains: Captain Reginald Bacon from 2 July 1906; Captain Charles Madden from 12 August 1907; Captain Charles Martin-de-Bartolome from 1 December 1908 to 24 February 1909; Captain Archibald Moore from 1 December 1908; Captain Herbert Richmond from 30 July 1909; Captain Sydney Fremantle from 28 March 1911; Captain Wilmot Nicholson from 19 December 1912; Captain William Alderson from 10 June 1914; Captain John McClintock from 19 July 1916; Captain Arthur D'Aeth from 1 December 1916; Captain Thomas Wardle from January 1918 (with Commander Harold B. Bedwell serving as acting captain from 7 February 1918); Captain Maurice Fitzmaurice from 20 April 1918 to 5 October 1918; and Captain Robert Coppinger from 25 February 1919 to 31 March 1920.[210][232][233][234]

Technical and tactical assessment

Dreadnought represented an unprecedented leap in naval technology.[84][85][235] Her ten 12-inch guns gave her an eight-gun broadside, twice the four-gun broadside of previous pre-dreadnought battleships, making her combat power equivalent to two or three older ships.[84][85][236] Her Parsons steam turbines made her 3 knots faster than existing pre-dreadnoughts, which were limited to 18 knots, giving her fleet tactical speed to dictate engagement distance and execute crossing the 'T' maneuvers.[27][28][237] The turbine machinery weighed 600 tons less than reciprocating engines, saved 1,000 tons of hull displacement, operated with minimal vibration, and demonstrated outstanding mechanical endurance on long ocean voyages.[238][239]

Nevertheless, the design suffered from significant flaws.[164][166][240] To remain within the 18,000-ton limit, armor was compromised: the waterline belt was reduced from 12 inches to 11 inches, the upper belt was omitted, and horizontal deck protection was thin.[70][163][164] When fully loaded, her main belt was completely submerged, leaving only the 8-inch upper belt to protect the waterline.[162][163][164] The tapering of the belt to 9 inches abreast 'A' barbette and its termination at the center of 'Y' barbette left the end magazines vulnerable.[162][167][168] Furthermore, the ship was designed for flat-trajectory fire; as combat ranges extended beyond 10,000 yards during the First World War, shells struck at steep plunging angles, exposing the thin armored decks.[169][170][171]

The anti-torpedo secondary armament of 76 mm guns proved completely inadequate against modern fleet destroyers, and their roof and deck mountings were vulnerable to blast interference and salt spray.[137][138][139] The American South Carolina class carried eight 12-inch guns against Dreadnought's ten, but its designer placed them in a more advantageous superfiring arrangement, two turrets forward and two aft, to save displacement; this layout, later used on almost all battleships, gave the American ship the same eight-gun broadside as Dreadnought.[241] Positioning the fore tripod mast behind the forward funnel created an operational defect: stack gases so heavily engulfed the spotting top that gunnery control was severely hampered in follow winds.[105][207][208][209]

From a strategic perspective, Dreadnought was a double-edged achievement.[242][243][244] Critics of her construction argued that because the new ship made all earlier battleships obsolete, Britain, which held to the two-power standard and had the largest battleship fleet in the world, lost its advantage at sea and had to build its battle fleet anew, giving Germany a chance to catch up in the number of battleships.[243][244][245] However, as Fisher observed, all-big-gun battleships were already being developed in the United States and Japan; building Dreadnought ensured that Great Britain established an early technical and industrial lead in dreadnought construction.[246][247][248]

Contemporary comparisons

The American South Carolina class (USS South Carolina and USS Michigan), authorized by Congress on 3 March 1905, was designed contemporaneously with Dreadnought.[249][250][251] Due to congressional restrictions, the ships were held to a displacement limit of 16,000 long tons.[251][252] American naval constructor Washington L. Capps compensated by adopting a superfiring arrangement of four twin 12-inch turrets on the centerline, two forward and two aft.[241][253] This layout delivered an eight-gun broadside from eight total guns, matching Dreadnought's broadside while saving weight and eliminating wing turrets.[241][253] However, the US Navy retained vertical triple-expansion reciprocating steam engines, limiting the ships to 18.5 knots (34.3 km/h), leaving them too slow to operate with later dreadnoughts.[254]

The German response was the Nassau class, authorized under the 1906 naval programme and laid down in 1907.[255][256][257] Unlike Britain, Germany had enlarged its canal and docking infrastructure, enabling the design of larger hulls displacing 18,873 metric tons normal and 20,535 metric tons full load.[258][259][260] The German designers selected twelve 280 mm (11-inch) SK L/45 guns mounted in six twin turrets in a hexagonal layout (one forward, one aft, two on each beam).[261][262] Because wing turrets could not fire across the deck, Nassau had an eight-gun broadside, identical to Dreadnought despite carrying two more guns.[261][262] German ballisticians considered the high-velocity 280 mm gun with improved armor-piercing caps equivalent to the British 12-inch gun.[263][264][265] For secondary defense, the Germans installed twelve 150 mm (5.9-inch) guns in armored casemates, which proved better than the 76 mm guns of British battleships at repelling torpedo attacks.[266][267] Nassau retained triple-expansion steam engines for fuel economy, delivering 19 knots.[268][269] Nassau featured superior armor protection, with a main belt of 270 mm (increasing to 290 mm in later units) and a continuous 30 mm internal torpedo bulkhead.[270][271][272]

Cultural impact and legacy

Dreadnought had an enormous cultural impact.[273][274] Her name became the generic noun for all all-big-gun capital ships, while older battleships were designated 'pre-dreadnoughts' and subsequent 13.5-inch and 15-inch armed vessels were called 'super-dreadnoughts'.[273][274][275] In the early years of cinema, Charles Urban produced short documentary films covering her 1906 launch and her 1907 anti-submarine exercises.[276][277] In 1909, Gaumont released an eight-minute film documenting King Edward VII's royal fleet inspection at Spithead, featuring Dreadnought and the battlecruiser HMS Invincible.[278][279]

Her name was reused by the Royal Navy in 1960 for Britain's first nuclear-powered submarine, HMS Dreadnought (S101), and has been assigned to the lead vessel of the Dreadnought-class ballistic missile submarines.[280] In 1916, the C. F. Martin Guitar Company developed an acoustic guitar with a wide, deep body, naming it the 'Dreadnought' shape after the battleship because of its powerful projection and bass response.[281][282] In 2014, paleontologist Kenneth Lacovara named a 65-tonne titanosaurian sauropod dinosaur Dreadnoughtus schrani, noting that its enormous size made it impervious to predators, evoking the all-big-gun battleships of the early twentieth century.[283][284] A surviving artifact, an original brass gun tampion from Dreadnought, is preserved at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich.[285][286]

Where editions disagree (3)
Total construction cost
  • English: Total cost is reported variously as £1,785,683, £1,783,883, and £1,672,483
  • Ukrainian: Contract cost was £1,672,483, plus £113,200 for guns
  • Polish: Total construction cost was £1,785,683
  • German: Total cost was £1,785,683, with other sources citing £1,783,883 and £1,672,483
  • Chinese: Total cost was £1,783,883
Scrap sale price to Thos. W. Ward in 1921
  • English: Sold for scrap for £36,630 based on 16,650 tons at £2. 4/- per ton, though another source states £44,750
  • Ukrainian: Sold for scrap to T. W. Ward for £44,750
  • Polish: Sold for scrap for £44,750
  • German: Sold for £36,630 based on tonnage rate, though another source states £44,750
  • Spanish: Sold for scrap on 9 May 1921 for £44,000
  • Russian: Sold for scrap for 447,500 pounds sterling
Commissioning date into the Royal Navy
  • English: Commissioned into the fleet on 11 December 1906
  • Ukrainian: Entered fleet service on 3 October 1906 and commissioned as flagship on 27 May 1907
  • Polish: Commissioned on 11 December 1907 (infobox gives 2 December 1906)
  • German: Commissioned into the fleet on 11 December 1906
  • Chinese: Commissioned into service on 3 December 1907 (infobox gives 2 December 1906)
Sources (38 Wikipedia editions)

The non-English editions provide substantial additional technical, historical, and organizational detail beyond the English article. The Ukrainian, Russian, and Bulgarian editions detail the pre-1905 conceptual designs (Untakeable and Unapproachable, Variants A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H), the complete roster of the Committee on Designs, the Haslar tank experiments by R. E. Froude and John Narbeth, exact hull weight distribution tables, and extensive comparisons with the contemporary South Carolina and Nassau classes. The Polish, Ukrainian, and Russian editions supply detailed chronologies of fire-control alterations, compass upgrades, searchlight rearrangements, and a comprehensive list of all twelve commanding officers.

Assembled from the Wikipedia articles below, each pinned to the revision read on 2026-09-27. Together they hold 570 references; the English article alone has 84.

EditionArticleRevisionSizeRefs
EnglishHMS Dreadnought (1906)137470799146.0 KB84
UkrainianHMS Dreadnought (1906)46243667213.9 KB33
BulgarianДредноут (линеен кораб, 1906)12791775213.1 KB26
RussianHMS Dreadnought (1906)155239072199.4 KB26
PolishHMS Dreadnought (1906)8033070158.0 KB8
VietnameseHMS Dreadnought (1906)7557824941.2 KB53
PortugueseHMS Dreadnought (1906)7147982440.1 KB67
GermanDreadnought (Schiff, 1906)26987515539.6 KB73
HungarianHMS Dreadnought2921964137.1 KB75
FrenchHMS Dreadnought (1906)23870721334.1 KB1
Hebrewאה"מ דרדנוט4392694731.7 KB0
ItalianHMS Dreadnought (1906)15059312428.7 KB22
DanishHMS Dreadnought (1906)1205439527.6 KB13
Japaneseドレッドノート (戦艦)10955752223.5 KB0
RomanianHMS Dreadnought1795264821.3 KB27
SpanishHMS Dreadnought (1906)17173420518.9 KB3
GreekHMS Dreadnought (1906)1082112613.3 KB1
KoreanHMS 드레드노트 (1906년)4133967611.8 KB19
MalayHMS Dreadnought (1906)534826010.2 KB3
CzechHMS Dreadnought (1906)261326748.8 KB8
Chinese无畏号战列舰914180408.6 KB1
Persianاچ‌ام‌اس دریدنوت (۱۹۰۶)439107177.7 KB0
FinnishHMS Dreadnought (1906)193566077.5 KB7
CatalanHMS Dreadnought381041476.8 KB2
DutchHMS Dreadnought (1906)685924716.2 KB11
Serbian (Latin)HMS Dreadnought424718445.9 KB0
IndonesianHMS Dreadnought (1906)298329935.9 KB0
CroatianHMS Dreadnought74011715.9 KB0
SerbianХМС Дреднот316453834.8 KB0
TurkishHMS Dreadnought (1906)379373464.0 KB2
SwedishHMS Dreadnought (1906)591354203.6 KB1
Arabicإتش إم إس دريدنوت (1906)749018133.3 KB3
NorwegianHMS «Dreadnought» (1906)225504383.2 KB0
EstonianDreadnought (1906)69048282.5 KB0
OccitanHMS Dreadnought20539012.0 KB0
SlovakHMS Dreadnought (1906)82897321.5 KB0
AfrikaansHMS Dreadnought28618721.0 KB0
KazakhДредноут21431400.6 KB1
The text on this page comes from the Wikipedia articles listed above, written by their contributors, and is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 licence. It was translated and merged from those articles, may contain errors, and has not been reviewed by Wikipedia editors. The image is from Wikimedia Commons; its own licence is on its file page. SuperCharged Wiki is not affiliated with or endorsed by the Wikimedia Foundation. How this works.

References

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  2. Виноградов. Дредноут, 1996, с. 3. (Виноградов С. Е. Линейный корабль Дредноут. — М.: Моделист-конструктор, 1996. — 32 с. — (Морская коллекция № 6 / 1996).)
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  7. Паркс. Том VI, 2007, с. 5.
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  9. Roberts, Dreadnought, 2002, p. 7. (Roberts, John. The Battleship Dreadnought. — London : Annapolis, Maryland, 2002. — (Anatomy of the Ship) — ISBN 1-55750-057-6.)
  10. Roberts, Dreadnought, 2002, p. 7. (Roberts. The Battleship Dreadnought. Anatomy of the Ship. — London: Conway Maritime Press Ltd, 2002. — ISBN 978-0851778952.)
  11. Roberts, Dreadnought 2002, с. 7.
  12. Roberts, Dreadnought, 2002, p. 8. (Roberts, John. The Battleship Dreadnought. — London : Annapolis, Maryland, 2002. — (Anatomy of the Ship) — ISBN 1-55750-057-6.)
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