Louis IX of France

Historical sources

The life and reign of Louis IX are documented by an administrative and legislative record that exceeds that of his Capetian predecessors in volume and preservation.^[3] In addition to governmental charters, numerous narrative accounts were produced, particularly to assist the papal inquest for his canonization. Among contemporary biographers, three individuals had direct personal knowledge of the king: Jean de Joinville, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres.^[4][5] All three authors were favorably inclined toward him. Joinville, who served as seneschal of Champagne and was a personal confidant and counselor, wrote the Vie de Saint Louis, which focuses heavily on the Seventh Crusade and his governance.^[6] Geoffrey of Beaulieu, a Dominican friar who served as the king's confessor for two decades, composed the hagiographical Vita et sancta conversatio piae memoriae Ludovici quondam regis Francorum, which prompted the initial steps of the canonization inquiry.^[5] William of Chartres, the king's chaplain who accompanied him to Egypt and Tunisia, authored a thirteen-page Libellus describing his death.^[5]

A fourth major primary source is the work of the Franciscan friar William of Saint-Pathus, confessor to Queen Margaret of Provence and later to her daughter Blanche, who compiled La Vie et les Miracles de Monseigneur Saint Louis in the early fourteenth century using the depositions and testimonies of the papal inquest.^[4][7] Additional contemporary notices appear in the Gesta Ludovici IX and Chronicon by the Saint-Denis archivist Guillaume de Nangis, the Chronica majora of the English Benedictine Matthew Paris, the rhymed chronicle of Philippe Mouskes, the chronicle of Salimbene di Adam, the Grandes Chroniques de France compiled by Primat of Saint-Denis, and the writings of the anonymous Minstrel of Reims.^[8][9] The king himself authored two versions of the Enseignements, or spiritual instructions, left for his heir Philip and his daughter Isabella, containing counsels on moral governance, charitable duties, and caution in warfare.^[9][10][11]

Early life and accession

Louis was born at the castle of Poissy on 25 April 1214, the year of the Battle of Bouvines, under the reign of his paternal grandfather, Philip II Augustus.^[12][13] Some later records offer 1215 as an alternative birth year.^[14] He was the second son of Prince Louis, later King Louis VIII the Lion, and Princess Blanche of Castile.^[13][15] He became heir apparent to the French throne at the age of four following the death of his older brother Philip in 1218.^[13][16][17] He was baptized in the collegiate church of Notre-Dame de Poissy; this location retained personal significance throughout his life, and he frequently signed personal documents as 'Louis de Poissy' or 'Louis, seigneur de Poissy', considering his baptism his true birth into spiritual life.^[13][15][18]

Blanche of Castile supervised his upbringing, selecting tutors who instructed him in Latin, grammar, rhetoric, public speaking, writing, statecraft, and military arts.^[13][19][20] According to contemporary witnesses, the young prince inherited the fair hair and delicate features associated with the House of Hainaut through his paternal grandmother, Isabella of Hainaut.^[21] He spent time in his early childhood with his grandfather Philip Augustus, the first French king in three centuries to live to see his grandson, which reinforced dynastic continuity.^[13][22] His mother imparted strict religious habits, famously repeating that she loved him dearly but would rather see him dead at her feet than guilty of committing a mortal sin.^[13][20][23]

Philip Augustus died on 14 July 1223, and Louis VIII succeeded to the throne when the young Louis was nine years old.^[13][24][25] Louis VIII's reign proved short; after returning from the royal campaign of the Albigensian Crusade, he died of dysentery at Montpensier on 8 November 1226.^[13][15][25] On his deathbed on 3 November, the dying monarch summoned barons, prelates, and military commanders to swear an oath of fealty to his young son and ensure his prompt coronation.^[13][26] Chronicler Philippe Mouskes recorded that Louis VIII charged his closest councilors, Barthélemy de Roye, Jean de Nesle, and Brother Guérin, Bishop of Senlis and Chancellor of France, with protecting his children.^[13][26]

Because the new king was only twelve years old, political anxiety arose regarding the government of a minor.^[13][27] Although French feudal custom lacked established rules for royal guardianship, Blanche of Castile assumed the regency immediately.^[13][28] This arrangement was formalized by an act signed by the Archbishop of Sens and the Bishops of Chartres and Beauvais, confirming that Louis VIII had verbally placed his heir, the kingdom, and his other children under Blanche's care and custody until the king reached majority.^[13][29] Louis was knighted at Soissons while travelling to Reims, a requisite ceremony because the King of France had to be a knight.^[13][30] On 29 November 1226, Jacques de Bazoches, Bishop of Soissons, anointed and crowned Louis IX in Reims Cathedral, officiated in place of the Archbishop of Reims because that see had been vacant since the death of Guillaume de Joinville four months earlier.^[30][31] The coronation was organized quickly so that no one could put pressure on the king or his circle, and many major secular barons and ecclesiastics were absent from the ceremony; historians have mostly explained these absences by political motives, while Jacques Le Goff argued that most absentees lacked time to prepare the journey because the ceremony was so hurried.^[13][30]

Minority and baronial rebellions

Blanche of Castile governed under the title of baillistre, maintaining her administrative footing while working alongside seasoned councilors of the previous reigns.^[15][32] Brother Guérin resigned the royal seals and died in 1227, Barthélemy de Roye gradually receded until his death in 1237, and Jean de Nesle participated intermittently, leaving Gauthier Cornu, Archbishop of Sens, as her primary domestic supporter.^[13][15][33] To neutralize potential dynastic challenges, the regent appeased the king's uncle Philip Hurepel, Count of Boulogne and illegitimate son of Philip Augustus, by granting him the castles of Mortain and Lillebonne, the homage of the County of Saint-Pol, and an annual life annuity of 6,000 livres tournois.^[13][34][35] On Epiphany, 6 January 1227, Blanche and Louis secured the release of Ferrand of Flanders, who had been imprisoned in the Louvre since his capture at Bouvines in 1214, in exchange for a cash ransom and oaths of fidelity, turning him into a loyal supporter of the crown.^[13][34][35]

The regent negotiated marriage pacts to mollify other prominent feudatories: the king's brother John was betrothed to Yolande of Brittany, daughter of Duke Peter Mauclerc, with Angers, Le Mans, Baugé, and Beaufort-en-Vallée pledged as security; his brother Alphonse was pledged to a daughter of Hugh X of Lusignan; and his sister Isabella to one of Lusignan's sons.^[13][36] In April 1227, a truce was concluded with Richard, Earl of Cornwall, followed in May by a request for a formal truce from King Henry III of England, which took effect in June.^[13][36] Despite these concessions, a baronial coalition formed at Corbeil in the summer of 1227, seeking to seize the king's person, remove Blanche from power, and take control of royal revenues.^[13][37][38] The nominal leaders were Philip Hurepel and Peter Mauclerc.^[13][37] Returning from negotiations in the West, Louis and Blanche found their route blocked at Montlhéry. Blanche dispatched appeals to the citizens of Paris, who mobilized an armed militia that escorted the royal party safely back to the capital.^[13][39][40] Joinville recalled Louis's later description of the road from Montlhéry to Paris being packed with armed and unarmed people calling on God to protect him against his enemies.

In 1228, the baronial coalition reassembled under the leadership of Enguerrand III of Coucy, backed by Philip Hurepel.^[13][41] The rebels directed their aggression against Theobald IV, Count of Champagne, the crown's strongest ally, and circulated rumors accusing Blanche of squandering royal funds and conducting affairs with the papal legate Romano Bonaventura and Count Theobald.^[13][42] In 1230, the young king took command of the royal host.^[13][43] In January, royal forces campaigned in the West against Mauclerc, who had paid homage to Henry III of England in October 1229.^[13][43] Louis captured Bellême and recovered Angers, Baugé, and Beaufort.^[13][43] On Bonaventura's counsel, royal detachments ravaged the estates of Raymond VII of Toulouse to pressure him toward peace.^[13][44]

In May 1230, Henry III landed at Saint-Malo with English reinforcements, but avoided pitched engagement and withdrew behind the walls of Nantes.^[13][43] Louis, reinforced by Hugh X of Lusignan, seized Clisson, besieged Ancenis, and razed the castle of La Haye-Pesnel belonging to the insurgent Fouques Pesnel.^[13][43] In spring 1231, a new campaign forced Peter Mauclerc to conclude a three-year truce at Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier, while the rebel barons facing Theobald in Champagne disbanded upon Louis's military approach.^[13][44] By November 1234, Mauclerc submitted fully to the king, consolidating the crown's supremacy over its territorial magnates.^[13]

Marriage and personal life

Historians generally place Louis's attainment of majority in 1234 at the age of twenty, though some contemporaries regarded 1235 as his official majority.^[13][45] A marriage was arranged with the thirteen-year-old Margaret of Provence, the eldest daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence, and Beatrice of Savoy.^[13][46][47] Gilles de Flagy, a knight on royal service in Toulouse, was sent to Provence in 1233 to observe the young noblewoman.^[13][47] Because the couple were related within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity, Pope Gregory IX granted a canonical dispensation on 2 January 1234.^[13][48] On 30 April 1234 at Sisteron, Ramon Berenguer IV pledged a dowry of 8,000 silver marks to be paid before November 1239, offering the castle and revenues of Tarascon as collateral.^[13][48] On 17 May, he added 2,000 marks secured by the bailliage and castle of Aix, though the count ultimately paid only a fraction of this financial pledge.^[13][48]

The wedding took place on 27 May 1234 in Sens Cathedral, celebrated by Archbishop Gauthier Cornu in the presence of the royal family, high barons, and Margaret's uncle William of Savoy, Bishop of Valence.^[13][46][49] The ceremony opened outside the cathedral with the joining of hands, the blessing, and the exchange of rings, followed by a nuptial Mass inside and the blessing of the bridal chamber.^[13][50][51] Margaret was crowned Queen of France the following day, 28 May 1234.^[13][46][52] According to her confessor, William of Saint-Pathus, Louis observed the pious tradition of the 'three nights of Tobias', spending the initial three nights after the ceremony in prayer and abstinence.^[13][51] The marriage produced eleven children. While the king and queen shared interests in riding, reading, and listening to music, Blanche of Castile maintained a possessive vigilance over her son, attempting to limit their private time together.^[13][53][54] On the occasion of his marriage, Louis established the chivalric Order of the Broom Pod.^[55]

Louis adopted a personal routine characterized by physical asceticism, sobriety, and charitable devotions.^[56][57] He wore plain attire, avoiding ostentatious luxury, and on Fridays wore a hair shirt and had his confessor administer discipline with iron chain whips.^[58][59] Unlike his royal predecessors, he showed no interest in hunting.^[60] While he exercised moderation in food, he enjoyed fruit, good wine, and pike, and condemned drunkenness.^[61] He regularly washed the feet of poor mendicants and lepers, served meals personally to destitute guests at his table, and listened to court petitions seated on the ground or under the oak tree in the forest of Vincennes.^{[62][63][64][65]}

Saintonge War and baronial resistance

In 1241, Louis fulfilled his father's testament by investing his younger brother Alphonse with the appanages of Poitou and Auvergne.^[13][66] This transfer directly affected Hugh X of Lusignan, Count of La Marche, whose lands were encompassed by the new appanage, obliging him to render feudal homage to Alphonse rather than directly to the king.^[13][66] Hugh's wife, Isabella of Angoulême, the widow of King John of England and mother of Henry III, resented this reduction in feudal status.^[13][66] The crisis intensified when Louis demanded the return of Aunis and Saint-Jean-d'Angély, territories pledged to Lusignan in 1230 during a broken marriage contract.^[13][66] In December 1241, Hugh publicly renounced his homage at an assembly of Poitevin vassals in Poitiers, dismantled his local residence, and formed a military league that included the Counts of Comminges, Bigorre, Armagnac, and Rodez, as well as Roger IV of Foix and Henry III of England.^[13][66]

The ensuing conflict, known as the Saintonge War, lasted from 28 April 1242 to 7 April 1243 and unfolded in three distinct phases.^[67] On 28 April 1242, Louis assembled the royal army at Chinon and formally opened the campaign at Poitiers on 4 May with 1,000 supply wagons, 4,000 knights, and 20,000 sergeants, squires, and crossbowmen.^[13][67] Royal forces systematically besieged and captured rebel fortresses across Poitou, including Montreuil, Béruges, Fontenay, Prez, Saint-Gelais, Tonnay-Boutonne, Matus, Thoré, and Saint-Affaire.^[13][67] Henry III landed at Royan on 13 May and declared war on 16 June as French troops completed the reduction of Poitou.^[13]

On 20 July 1242, the French arrived before Taillebourg, where the two armies faced each other across the Charente River.^[13][68] The English and rebel Poitevin troops attempted to hold the stone bridge, but French forces drove them back in disorder toward Saintes.^[13][68] On 22 July, Louis crossed the river and engaged the Anglo-Poitevin army outside Saintes. Guillaume de Nangis reported that the battle was prolonged, but French assaults forced the English to retreat in flight, capturing large numbers.^[13][69] Henry III fled into Saintes and escaped during the night alongside Hugh of Lusignan. On the morning of 24 July, the citizens of Saintes delivered the keys of the city to Louis.^[13][69]

Following the English flight, Renaud, Lord of Pons, surrendered on 25 July, and Hugh X of Lusignan made his submission the next day.^[13][69] Henry III retreated through Barbezieux and Blaye, arriving at Bordeaux on 4 August.^[13][69] Raymond VII of Toulouse, who had aligned with the English and seized Narbonne and Albi in August, faced two royal armies dispatched to Languedoc; after the Count of Foix abandoned the rebel cause, Raymond submitted on 20 October 1242, renouncing Narbonne and Albi and reaffirming his crusading vows.^[13][70] Although royal casualties in combat were light, an epidemic of dysentery affected the French army, striking Louis himself before his return to Paris in August 1242.^[13][71] An English naval blockade of La Rochelle failed, and on 12 March 1243, Henry III concluded a five-year truce with the French crown.^[13][72]

Territorial expansion and border settlements

The royal domain was enlarged through both armed subjection and strategic dynastic settlements. In the south, the Treaty of Meaux-Paris, signed on 12 April 1229 between Blanche of Castile, Louis IX, and Raymond VII of Toulouse, brought an end to the active hostilities of the Albigensian Crusade.^[73][74] Raymond ceded the seneschalships of Beaucaire and Carcassonne to the royal domain, while the Marquisate of Provence was ceded to the Holy See.^[13][73] The treaty mandated the marriage of Raymond's sole daughter and heiress, Joan of Toulouse, to Louis's brother Alphonse of Poitiers; upon their childless deaths in 1271, the entire County of Toulouse reverted permanently to the royal domain.^[13][75][76] In Champagne, Alice of Cyprus claimed the county against Theobald IV in 1233–1234; Louis provided 40,000 livres tournois and an annual pension of 2,000 livres to settle her claims, in exchange for which Theobald ceded the counties of Blois, Chartres, Sancerre, and the viscounty of Châteaudun to the French crown.^[13][77]

Territorial disputes with the Crown of Aragon were resolved through the Treaty of Corbeil, signed on 11 May 1258.^[13] Louis IX renounced ancient Carolingian claims of suzerainty over the Spanish March, specifically Catalonia, Roussillon, and Cerdanya.^[13] In exchange, King James I of Aragon renounced all feudal claims over Languedoc, Provence, Toulouse, and adjacent southern territories, with the exceptions of Montpellier and Carlat.^[13] The southern boundary of France was fortified along the Corbières line by the strongholds of Termes, Aguilar, Niort, Quéribus, Peyrepertuse, and Puilaurens, facing Catalan fortifications at Salses, Opoul, and Perpignan.^[13][78] The treaty was dynastically sealed by the betrothal of James I's daughter Isabella to Louis's son and heir.^[13]

On 28 May 1258, Louis and Henry III of England agreed to the Treaty of Paris, formally ratified in December 1259.^[79][80][81] Henry renounced all historical Plantagenet claims to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poitou, territories confiscated during the reign of Philip Augustus.^[79][82][83] In return, Louis recognized Henry as Duke of Aquitaine and his vassal for Guyenne and Gascony, providing revenues from the Agenais and rights in the dioceses of Limoges, Cahors, and Périgueux, alongside funds to maintain 500 knights for two years.^[82][83] On 4 December 1259 in Paris, Henry III performed liege homage to Louis IX, ending decades of open warfare between the two dynasties.^[13][79][81]

Governmental and judicial reforms

Louis IX transformed the administrative structure of the French monarchy, shifting the state from a feudal network based on personal vassalage to an organized sovereignty centered on the crown and its subjects.^[84] In 1245, he instituted the quarantaine-le-roi, a royal ordinance imposing an obligatory truce of at least forty days following the outbreak of any dispute between parties, prohibiting private warfare and violent retaliation during that window.^[13][85][86] In 1247, prior to departing on crusade, he dispatched itinerant royal enquêteurs across the realm to receive public complaints concerning administrative abuses, extortion, and judicial malfeasance committed by royal officers, ordering monetary restitutions where injustices were verified.^[85][87][88]

In December 1254, drawing on findings from the nationwide inquests, Louis promulgated the Great Reform Ordinance (statutum generale or establissement le roi).^[85][87][89] The ordinance regulated the conduct of royal administrators, including baillis, seneschals, and provosts, who were converted into salaried royal officers assigned to distinct administrative circumscriptions.^[85][88] Officers were ordered to refuse any gift for themselves or their families.^[13] They were required to administer justice impartially, were barred from imposing fines without trial, and were forbidden from impeding the transport of grain, a measure intended to prevent famine and hoarding.^[13]

The ordinance established the legal presumption of innocence in criminal proceedings: 'no one shall be deprived of their right without guilt or trial' (nemo sine culpa vel causa privandus est jure suo).^[90] A revised general ordinance issued in 1256 removed prior references to the use of torture by royal agents and reinforced legal protections for women, mandating that widows and wives retain their dowries and inheritances without being penalized for their husbands' offenses.^[91][92] In 1261, complying with directives from the Fourth Lateran Council, an ordinance abolished trial by ordeal, ending tests of fire and water as well as judicial combat, replacing physical tests with testimonial and documentary evidence.^[13][87][93]

During his reign, the Curia Regis began developing specialized governing institutions.^[87][94] The Council handled high political affairs; the Curia in parliamento, which evolved into the Parlement of Paris, served as the supreme court of appeal; and the Curia in compotis, housed in the Temple tower, managed state finance as the forerunner of the Cour des comptes.^[94] The king asserted royal judicial supremacy over high nobility, as demonstrated in 1259 when Enguerrand IV, Lord of Coucy, hanged three young noblemen from Laon without trial for hunting in his forests.^[95] Louis rejected Enguerrand's demand for judicial duel or trial by peers, arrested him, and fined him 12,000 livres, using part of the money to fund masses for the victims' souls.^[95]

Monetary reforms and economic policy

Between 1262 and 1270, Louis enacted monetary legislation to establish the crown's currency as the dominant legal tender throughout France.^[96] An ordinance of 1262 prohibited the counterfeiting of royal coins and established a royal monopoly on circulation across the kingdom, stipulating that regional coins minted by authorized feudal lords could circulate only within their specific seigneurial lands.^[13][96] Two ordinances issued between 1262 and 1265 banned the circulation of English sterling coins (esterlins), requiring royal subjects to swear not to use them and setting mid-August 1266 as the terminal deadline for their use.^[96][97]

In July 1266, Louis reorganized the currency by adjusting the weight and fine silver content of the denier parisis and introducing a new, stable high-value silver denomination, the gros tournois (worth twelve deniers).^[96] The gros tournois achieved widespread commercial success in domestic trade and international markets across Northern Europe, remaining in use into the fourteenth century and serving as the prototype for the German Groschen.^[97][98] An ordinance issued between 1266 and 1270 introduced a gold coin, the écu d'or.^[96][97] While the initial écu and the adjusted denier parisis saw limited circulation, the monetary reforms reduced the number of independent seigneurial mints in France from approximately three hundred to around thirty by the early fourteenth century.^[98] In 1268, royal provost Étienne Boileau compiled the Livre des métiers, codifying the statutes and customs of Parisian trade guilds.^[99]

Moral and social legislation

Following his return from the Holy Land in 1254, Louis sought to reform public morality, attributing the failure of the crusade to the sins of the kingdom.^{[13][100][101]} He enacted severe penalties for blasphemy, mandating fines and public exposure, and later authorized the mutilation of the lips and tongue for persistent offenders.^[102][103] His ordinances prohibited gambling, the manufacturing of dice, and games of chance including backgammon, chess, and checkers, while taverns were restricted to travelers and closed to ordinary urban residents.^{[13][85][104]}

In the Great Ordinance of 1254, Louis prohibited prostitution across the entire kingdom.^[101][105] Prostitutes were ordered to cease their activity, expelled from towns, and forbidden to operate near churches and cemeteries.^[101][105] Landlords renting property to prostitutes faced the confiscation of a year's rent, while repeat offenders faced the seizure of their clothing, the auction of their homes for the benefit of the royal treasury, and exile from the realm.^[101][105] Concurrently, the king financed an expansion of the Convent of the Filles-Dieu in Paris to house two hundred reformed prostitutes.^{[101][105][106]}

Total prohibition proved ineffective, as displaced prostitutes altered their appearance to blend into respectable society, causing confusion and harassment.^[101][105] In 1256, Louis revised his policy, issuing an ordinance that permitted brothels to operate under strict spatial and temporal confinement outside town walls and far from places of worship.^[101][105] These establishments were restricted to daytime hours, closing at six o'clock in the evening, establishing what historian Jacques Le Goff characterized as an early outline of prostitution ghettos.^[105][107] In 1270, the king enacted legislation designating sodomy as a capital offense.^[108]

Heresy and the Cathars

Louis viewed the royal office as the secular arm of the Catholic Church, responsible for eradicating heresy.^[109][110] Although the Treaty of Paris of 1229 had concluded major campaigns in the south, Catharism persisted in Languedoc, Provence, and parts of Lombardy.^[109][110] To address heresy, Louis established an advisory council composed of mendicant inquisitors and converted heretics.^[13][111] His policy prioritized conversions and banishments, though he affirmed capital sentences decreed by the Inquisition.^[13][112]

Following the assassination of inquisitors at Avignonet on 20 May 1242 by soldiers from the Cathar stronghold of Montségur, Louis and Blanche tasked the seneschal of Carcassonne and Pierre Amiel, Archbishop of Narbonne, with besieging the fortress.^[109][113] Beginning in May 1243, a royal besieging force of 6,000 men surrounded the mountain redoubt.^[109][113] After sustained resistance, Pierre-Roger de Mirepoix negotiated a fifteen-day truce on 1 March 1244, and the fortress surrendered on 16 March.^[109][113] Two hundred and twenty Cathars who refused to abjure their beliefs were burned at the stake.^[109][113] The remaining Cathar bastions, including Quéribus and Niort-de-Sault, were captured by 1255.^[109][113] Confiscations of Cathar properties peaked in the years prior to the Seventh Crusade and declined after 1254.^[102]

Policy toward the Jewish population

Louis distinguished Judaism, which he regarded as a real religion, from heresy and Islam, which he regarded as only a semblance of religion.^[13][114] However, he adopted an aggressive stance against usury and Jewish communal religious autonomy.^{[115][116][117]} In December 1230, the Ordinance of Melun revived measures established by Philip Augustus, prohibiting Jews from making interest-bearing loans and allowing lords to hold Jews residing on their lands as serfs.^{[13][116][118]} An ordinance in 1234 canceled one-third of debts owed by Christian debtors to Jewish creditors and forbade the seizure of debtors' lands.^[13][119] The Great Ordinance of 1254 reiterated bans on usury and incantations, forbidding royal officials from assisting Jews in debt recovery.^[119][120] In 1247, Louis rejected proposals to fund the crusade with confiscated Jewish usury money, refusing to finance a holy war with tainted funds.^[13][121] In 1268, an ordinance ordered the expulsion of all foreign usurers, targeting Lombard, Florentine, and Cahorsin bankers.^[122]

In 1239, Nicolas Donin, a Jewish convert to Christianity, presented thirty-five accusations against the Talmud to Pope Gregory IX, asserting that the texts contained blasphemies against Jesus and Mary and supplanted biblical law.^{[13][116][123][124]} Gregory issued circular letters directing Christian rulers to seize copies of the Talmud.^{[13][116][124]} On 3 March 1240, royal officers seized Talmudic manuscripts throughout the royal domain.^{[13][116][125]} In 1240 Louis had the Disputation of Paris held, in which churchmen including the Bishop of Paris debated four rabbis, including Yechiel of Paris, under the eyes of Blanche of Castile and the whole court.^{[13][103][126]} The tribunal condemned the texts, and in 1242, twenty-two wagonloads containing roughly 12,000 Hebrew books and manuscripts were burned in the Place de Grève.^{[13][123][127][128]} Following an encouraging bull from Pope Innocent IV on 9 May 1244, further book burnings were conducted.^[13][129]

In 1269, implementing provisions of the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 and the Council of Narbonne of 1227 under the influence of convert Pablo Christiani, Louis mandated that all Jews wear the rouelle.^{[85][130][131]} This badge, made of a circular piece of yellow or red cloth, had to be stitched to the chest and back of garments, while women were required to wear distinctive head coverings.^{[85][131][132]} Jews were also forbidden from appearing in public during Holy Week and excluded from public office.^[103][133] Attendance was made compulsory at Christian conversion sermons delivered by Christiani, though voluntary conversions remained rare.^[134] Unlike Philip Augustus in 1182 or Philip IV in 1306, Louis never carried out a general expulsion of Jews from the realm, and when anti-Jewish violence erupted in Anjou, the crown prosecuted and punished the perpetrators.^[135]

Arts, architecture, and scholarship

The reign of Louis IX coincided with an intellectual and architectural era characterized as a golden century.^[15][115] According to Robert Branner, Parisian architecture under Louis's influence became a sophisticated style called the 'court style', and Paris became an artistic capital with workshops producing illuminated manuscripts, ivories, embroidery, tapestries, jewellery and liturgical objects.^[115][136] The king maintained contacts with scholars at the University of Paris; Robert de Sorbon, the king's chaplain, co-founded the College of Sorbonne in 1253 on Rue Coupe-Gueule to support impoverished students of theology.^[115][137] Louis supported Dominican and Franciscan academic chairs, providing patronage during the tenures of Thomas Aquinas, who taught in Paris from 1256 to 1259 and 1269 to 1272, and Albertus Magnus, who lectured between 1245 and 1248.^{[138][139][140]} At the king's request, the Dominican encyclopedist Vincent of Beauvais served as royal tutor at Royaumont Abbey and composed the Speculum Maius.^[140][141] Louis also commissioned the first complete French translation of the Bible around 1230.^[142]

In 1237, Baldwin II, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, arrived in France seeking financial and military assistance, revealing that Latin barons had pledged the Crown of Thorns to Venetian merchants under Niccolò Quirino as security for loans.^[143][144] To prevent the relic from being lost, Louis purchased the pledge, paying 135,000 livres tournois to clear the Venetian debt, while Baldwin conveyed the relic to France.^[143][145] Dominican friars Jacques and André accompanied the relic from Constantinople via Venice, with Emperor Frederick II providing an imperial safe-conduct across Italy.^[146][147] Louis, his brother Robert, Queen Blanche, and court dignitaries received the Crown at Villeneuve-l'Archevêque in August 1239.^[148] Louis and Robert carried the relic barefoot into Paris in a penitential procession to the Cathedral of Notre-Dame before depositing it in the palatine chapel of Saint-Nicolas.^[149] In 1241, Louis acquired additional relics from Baldwin II, including a fragment of the True Cross, the Holy Lance, and the Holy Sponge.^[143][149]

To house the Passion relics, Louis commissioned the construction of the Sainte-Chapelle within the Palais de la Cité on the Île de la Cité.^[143][150] Construction began in 1241 and the chapel was consecrated on 26 April 1248 by Eudes de Châteauroux and Philippe Berruyer.^[151][152] It featured a lower chapel for courtiers and palace staff and an upper chapel for the royal family, housing the relics in a silver-gilt shrine that cost 100,000 livres tournois, while construction of the chapel structure itself cost 40,000 livres.^[153] The master architect is traditionally identified as Pierre de Montreuil.^[154]

Louis founded and patronized numerous religious houses and charitable institutions.^[106][127] In accordance with the testament of Louis VIII, he founded the Cistercian Abbey of Royaumont between 1228 and 1235, assisting in construction by physically carrying building materials alongside the monks.^{[127][155][156]} In 1241, Blanche of Castile founded the Cistercian abbey of Maubuisson, and from 1231 onward, major renovations linked the choir and narthex at the Basilica of Saint-Denis, where Louis established a new royal burial program in 1267.^[157] In Paris, Louis established the Quinze-Vingts hospice near Porte Saint-Honoré in 1260 to shelter three hundred blind individuals, providing an annual royal rent of 30 livres parisis.^[106][158] He also founded or expanded the Hôtel-Dieu of Paris, the Audriettes hospital for widows, and regional hospitals at Pontoise, Vernon, and Compiègne.^{[106][159][160]} In military architecture, he erected the defensive walls and Constance Tower at Aigues-Mortes as a crusader port, and fortified Angers, Jaffa, Caesarea, and Sidon.^{[161][162][163][164]}

Seventh Crusade

In December 1244, while suffering from dysentery and malaria at Pontoise, Louis fell so critically ill that attendants believed he had died.^[165] Upon recovering his speech, he made a vow to lead a crusade to the East.^[166] Blanche of Castile and William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris, urged him to rescind the vow on the grounds that it was taken while delirious, but upon his full recovery, Louis renewed the oath.^[167] Pope Innocent IV confirmed the crusade at the Council of Lyon in 1245.^[168] The king organized preparations for three years, sending agents to amass grain, wine, and armaments on Cyprus.

On 12 June 1248, Louis received the Oriflamme and pilgrim insignia at Saint-Denis.^[169] He appointed his mother regent during his absence and embarked from the newly constructed port of Aigues-Mortes on 25 August 1248.^[170] His expeditionary force comprised roughly 25,000 men, including 2,500 knights, 2,500 squires, 10,000 foot soldiers, and 5,000 crossbowmen, carried aboard 38 large transports and hundreds of smaller craft.^[170] He was accompanied by Queen Margaret, his brothers Robert I of Artois, Alphonse of Poitiers, and Charles of Anjou, and Raymond VII of Toulouse.^[170][171] The fleet wintered on Cyprus from September 1248 until May 1249.^[172]

The crusader fleet arrived off Egypt on 4 June 1249 and landed near Damietta on 5 June.^[173][174] The defenders abandoned Damietta rather than risk a siege, and the city fell after only a few hours of fighting, giving the crusaders large stores of food and war material.^[175] However, the advance toward Cairo was halted during the summer by the annual flooding of the Nile Delta.^[115] Ayyubid Sultan as-Salih Ayyub died in November 1249, but his widow, Shajar al-Durr, concealed his death while organizing the defenses with Mamluk commanders.^[115] On 20 November, the crusader army began marching south along the Nile.^[176]

On 8 February 1250, royal vanguard forces under Robert of Artois crossed a ford over the Bahr al-Saghir canal near al-Mansurah.^[177] Disobeying orders to wait for the main army, Robert advanced into the town, where Mamluk forces under Baibars surrounded and annihilated the vanguard, killing Robert of Artois and William Longespée.^[177] Although Louis drove back subsequent Egyptian assaults, his army was besieged in its camp and decimated by famine, dysentery, and scurvy.^{[171][178][179]} During the retreat back toward Damietta, Mamluk forces surrounded the army at Fariskur on 6 April 1250, capturing Louis and his surviving nobility, while sick and wounded soldiers were slaughtered.^{[180][181][182]}

In Damietta, Queen Margaret, who had given birth to a son, John Tristan, organized the defense of the city and raised the necessary funds to ransom the king.^[183][184] During Louis's captivity, a Mamluk coup resulted in the murder of the new sultan Turanshah, ending Ayyubid rule in Egypt.^[179] On 6 May 1250, Louis was released in exchange for the surrender of Damietta and an initial payment of 400,000 bezants (roughly 200,000 livres tournois) toward a total ransom.^{[179][183][185]} An additional sum was secured by Joinville from the Templars under threat of force.^[186]

Four years in the Latin East

Following his release from Egyptian captivity in May 1250, Louis sailed to Acre, where he arrived on 12 or 13 May.^[187] Louis began a pilgrimage in the Holy Land and called on his subjects to join him, while ordering his brothers Alphonse of Poitiers and Charles of Anjou to return to France to help their mother with the regency.^[188][189] His standing army in the East was reduced to roughly 1,400 men.^[189]

During his four-year stay from 1250 to 1254, Louis expended royal resources reconstructing and expanding the fortifications of Acre, Caesarea, Jaffa, and Sidon.^{[162][164][190][191]} He mediated a succession dispute in the Principality of Antioch on behalf of Bohemond VI, assumed administrative oversight in Cyprus following the death of King Henry I, and concluded diplomatic truces with the Ayyubid rulers of Damascus.^[192] He established diplomatic contact with the Old Man of the Mountain, leader of the Nizari Isma'ili Assassins in Syria, exchanging gifts to maintain peace.^[192][193] While in Outremer, he established a permanent detachment of French knights known as the French Regiment under the command of Geoffroy de Sergines, funded by the French crown to garrison Acre.^[194] Upon receiving news of the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, in November 1252, Louis decided to return to Europe, embarking from Acre on 24 April 1254 and arriving in Paris on 7 September.^[195][196]

Diplomatic contacts with the Mongols

Louis engaged in direct correspondence and diplomatic exchanges with the Mongol Empire, exploring potential military alliances against Islamic powers.^{[197][198][199]} While on Cyprus in December 1248, he received emissaries named David and Marc, sent by Eljigidei, the Mongol commander in Armenia and Persia.^{[197][198][200]} Eljigidei suggested that Louis invade Egypt while the Mongols advanced against Baghdad to prevent Syrian and Egyptian Muslim forces from unifying.^{[197][201][202]} In response, Louis dispatched the Dominican friar André de Longjumeau to the court of Khagan Güyük, sending along a portable scarlet tent chapel and Christian devotional artwork.^{[201][203][204]} Güyük had died before Longjumeau's arrival, and the regent, Oghul Qaimish, dismissed the mission while demanding that the French king send regular annual tribute.^{[201][203][204]}

In 1253, having received reports that Sartaq Khan of the Golden Horde had converted to Christianity, Louis sent the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck on an unofficial missionary and diplomatic journey to Karakorum.^{[201][205][206]} Rubruck was allowed to travel to the Great Khan Möngke at Karakorum, and returned to Cyprus in 1255 without success.^[205][206] In 1259, Berke Khan of the Golden Horde renewed the demand for Louis's formal submission.^[205][207] On 10 April 1262, Louis received a letter from Hulagu Khan, founder of the Ilkhanate, who had conquered Baghdad in 1258.^[207][208] Hulagu proposed military cooperation against the Mamluks, asking Louis to provide naval vessels for an assault on Egypt in exchange for restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to Christian control.^[207][208] However, because the letter asserted Mongol universal suzerainty over the king, Louis declined to enter into an alliance and referred the ambassadors to the papacy in Rome.^[207][208]

European arbitration and diplomacy

Louis's international prestige led neighboring rulers to seek his arbitration in major political and dynastic disputes.^[15][209] In the War of the Succession of Flanders and Hainaut, Countess Margaret II of Flanders disputed the inheritance rights of her sons by Bouchard of Avesnes in favor of her sons by William of Dampierre.^[15][210] Louis was asked to intervene as suzerain, issuing the Dit de Paris in 1246 alongside Eudes de Châteauroux, which awarded Hainaut to the Avesnes family and Flanders to the Dampierres.^[15][211] When hostilities resumed in 1253 after Charles of Anjou attempted to seize Hainaut, Louis recalled his brother to Paris and confirmed the partition on 24 September 1256 in the Dit de Péronne, requiring Margaret to compensate Charles financially.^[15][212]

During the constitutional struggle between King Henry III of England and the English baronial faction led by Simon de Montfort, both sides agreed in December 1263 to submit their dispute to Louis's arbitration.^{[15][213][214]} On 23 January 1264, Louis delivered the Mise of Amiens.^{[15][213][214]} As a defender of royal prerogatives, Louis ruled that the Provisions of Oxford were null and void, ratifying papal bulls on the matter and ordering that Henry III be restored to full sovereign authority, while upholding older English liberties granted prior to the provisions.^{[15][213][214]} Although the ruling favored the English monarchy, the baronial coalition rejected the award, leading to the outbreak of the Second Barons' War.^[213] In 1259, Louis also adjudicated a feudal dispute in Greece between Guy I de la Roche, Lord of Athens, and the Prince of Achaea, recognizing the autonomy of Athens and elevating the lordship to a duchy.

Throughout the conflict between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the papacy, Louis maintained formal diplomatic neutrality, resisting attempts by both sides to compromise French secular independence.^[15][215] In 1240, when Pope Gregory IX attempted to depose Frederick and offered the imperial crown to Louis's brother Robert of Artois, the king rejected the proposal.^[15] When Pisan and imperial galleys captured French prelates attending a papal council at the Battle of Giglio in May 1241, Louis sent an embassy demanding their immediate release, declaring to Frederick that France was not so weak as to be guided by imperial spurs, which prompted the emperor to free them.^{[15][216][217]} When Innocent IV fled Rome in 1244, Louis refused him political asylum in France to preserve neutrality, though he allowed the pope to reside in Lyon, then an autonomous city on the imperial border.^[15][218] He attempted conciliation between pope and emperor at Cluny in 1244 and 1246, but mobilised troops to protect Lyon when imperial forces approached the Alps in 1247.^{[15][219][220]} In the summer of 1269, Louis received envoys from Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in Paris, encouraging discussions on church reunion that culminated in the short-lived Union of Lyon in 1274.^[221][222]

Eighth Crusade and death

After Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured Caesarea, Jaffa, and Antioch between 1265 and 1268, Louis, who had interpreted the failure of the Seventh Crusade as a divine punishment, resolved to launch another crusade.^[223][224] On 25 March 1267, the feast of the Annunciation, Louis made his decision to take the cross a second time known to an assembly of prelates and barons.^[224][225] Another account says that at a parliament held in Paris on 24 March 1267, Louis and his three sons took the cross.^{[190][224][225]} Many close advisers, including Jean de Joinville, opposed the expedition as anachronistic and ill-advised given the king's weakened health.^[224] Funding was secured through urban hearth taxes and tenths levied on ecclesiastical property.^[226]

The strategic objective was altered from Syria to the Hafsid Sultanate of Tunis in North Africa.^[190][224] Louis hoped to convert Muhammad I al-Mustansir, the Hafsid emir, or establish Tunis as a supply base for an eventual offensive against Mamluk Egypt.^[224][227] The operation was also influenced by the political interests of his brother, Charles I of Anjou, King of Sicily, who had ongoing commercial and political disputes with Tunis.^{[227][228][229]} On 14 March 1270, Louis took the pilgrim's staff and the Oriflamme at Saint-Denis.^[230] The army gathered at Aigues-Mortes and set sail on 1 July aboard La Montjoie, arriving off Carthage on 17 July 1270 with a crusader contingent that included Prince Edward of England and King Theobald II of Navarre.^{[190][227][230]}

The crusaders easily captured Carthage, but Sultan al-Mustansir refused conversion and prepared Tunis for defense.^[231][232] Encamped amid summer heat and contaminated water sources, an epidemic broke out in the crusader camp.^{[190][231][232]} Louis's son John Tristan succumbed to the disease on 3 August, and the king fell ill on the same day.^[233] Louis died in his tent near Carthage on 25 August 1270 at the age of fifty-six, having reigned for over forty-three years.^{[232][234][235]} On his deathbed, he received extreme unction, requested to be placed on a bed of ashes in an act of penance, and reportedly spoke the final word 'Jerusalem'.^{[232][236][237][238]} While traditional chroniclers attributed his death to dysentery, typhus, or plague, paleopathological studies published in 2015 and 2019 demonstrated that the king suffered from severe scurvy, with possible secondary schistosomiasis.^[239][240]

Repatriation of remains and burial

Following the king's death, a dispute over his remains arose between his successor, Philip III, and his brother, Charles of Anjou.^[241] The leaders agreed to partition the body: Charles received the soft tissues and internal viscera, which were transported to Sicily and entombed in Monreale Cathedral near Palermo, while Philip III retained the skeletal remains to be interred in the royal necropolis at Saint-Denis.^[242][243] To separate the flesh from the bones for overland transport, the body was subjected to mos Teutonicus, being boiled in wine and water.^[244][245]

The French crusader host concluded a treaty with the Emir of Tunis on 30 October 1270 and embarked on 11 November.^[246] The overland funerary processional across Sicily, Italy, the Alps, and France was accompanied by several fatalities among the royal party, including King Theobald II of Navarre, Queen Isabella of Aragon (wife of Philip III), and Alphonse of Poitiers and his wife Joan of Toulouse.^[246] The processional reached Paris on 21 May 1271; the coffin was displayed at Notre-Dame, and the bones were buried at Saint-Denis Basilica on 22 May.^[246][247] A silver-gilt tomb effigy was erected at Saint-Denis in 1282, which was destroyed in the fifteenth century during the Hundred Years' War or melted down during the French Wars of Religion.^[248][249]

Canonization and relic distribution

Immediately following his death, reports of miracles were recorded along the processional route in Sicily, northern Italy, and at his tomb in Saint-Denis.^[250] In March 1272, Pope Gregory X requested Geoffrey of Beaulieu to compile documentation regarding the king's life.^[251][252] Formal canonization inquests commenced in May 1282 under Pope Martin IV, directed by the Archbishop of Rouen and the Bishops of Auxerre and Spoleto, examining 330 witnesses regarding miracles and 35 regarding the king's virtues.^[253] Following interruptions under several short pontificates, Pope Boniface VIII, seeking reconciliation with King Philip IV the Fair, proclaimed Louis's canonization on 4 August 1297 at Orvieto, officially issuing the bull Gloria laus on 11 August and designating his feast day as 25 August.^{[254][255][256][257]}

On 25 August 1298, Philip IV presided over the elevation of his grandfather's relics at Saint-Denis, placing the skeletal remains in a golden reliquary behind the high altar.^[256][258] In 1306, with authorization from Pope Clement V, the skull was transferred to the Sainte-Chapelle and placed in a gold reliquary crafted by Guillaume Julien, with the jaw and teeth remaining at Saint-Denis and a rib given to Notre-Dame de Paris.^[259] Relics were subsequently distributed across Europe: finger bones were sent to King Haakon V of Norway for a church in Tysnes near Bergen; fragments were presented to Queen Blanche of Sweden for Vadstena Abbey; and bone fragments were sent by Emperor Charles IV to Saint Vitus Cathedral in Prague.^[260] Other relics were acquired by Ingolstadt, Royaumont, and Pontoise.^[260]

During the French Revolution, the reliquary shrines at Saint-Denis and the Sainte-Chapelle were dismantled, and most surviving skeletal remains were dispersed or destroyed, leaving only a fragment preserved in the Cabinet des Médailles of the Bibliothèque nationale de France and a finger bone at Saint-Denis.^[260] In 1860, King Francis II of the Two Sicilies took Saint Louis's viscera with him into exile, placed them in the chapel of a castle provided by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, and in his will, written in 1894, left them to Cardinal Charles Lavigerie and the White Fathers for the cathedral of Carthage.^[13] In 1985, these remains were transferred to Saint-Denis, displayed in Saint Louis, Missouri in 1999, and finally transferred to Versailles Cathedral in October 2011.^[261] Louis is honored as co-patron of the Secular Franciscan Order and as the patron saint of France, barbers, lace makers, and numerous geographic locations.^[262][263]

Issue

Louis IX and Margaret of Provence had eleven children:^[12][15]

Blanche (12 July or 4 December 1240 – 29 April 1244), died in childhood and was buried at Royaumont Abbey before being transferred to Saint-Denis in 1820.^{[12][15][264]} Isabella (2 March 1241 – 28 January 1271), married King Theobald II of Navarre in 1255; she accompanied the Eighth Crusade and died childless on the return journey.^{[13][15][265]} Louis (23 September 1243 or 24 February 1244 – 11 January or 2 February 1260) was betrothed to Berengaria of Castile in Paris on 20 August 1255.^[266] The heir to the throne, he was betrothed to Isabella of Aragon under the 1258 Treaty of Corbeil and died at age sixteen, possibly from appendicitis.^[13][15] Philip III the Bold (1 May 1245 – 5 October 1285), who succeeded his father as King of France; he married firstly Isabella of Aragon in 1262 and secondly Maria of Brabant in 1274.^[12][13][15] John (1246 or 1247 – 10 March 1248), died in infancy.^[12][13][15]

John Tristan (8 April 1250 – 3 August 1270), born at Damietta during his father's captivity; he became Count of Valois and Count of Nevers by marriage to Yolande II of Nevers in 1266, dying childless of dysentery during the Eighth Crusade.^{[12][13][15][267]} Peter (1251 – 6 or 7 April 1284), born in Outremer; created Count of Alençon and Perche in 1269, he married Joan of Châtillon in 1272, with their two sons dying in infancy.^[12][13][15] Blanche (early 1253 – 17 June 1320), born in Jaffa; her father attempted to place her in Maubuisson Abbey, but she refused and obtained a papal dispensation, marrying Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castile, in 1268.^[12][13][15] Margaret (early 1255 – July 1271) married Duke John I of Brabant.^[12][13][15] Robert (1256 – 7 February 1317), created Count of Clermont; he married Beatrice of Burgundy, Lady of Bourbon, in 1272, founding the Capetian House of Bourbon, whose direct agnatic descendant Henry IV ascended the French throne in 1589.^[12][13][15] Agnes (1260 – 19 or 20 December 1327), married Duke Robert II of Burgundy.^[12][13][15]

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74. Francja w czasach Kapetyngów, s. 273.
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79. Jean Favier, « Saint Louis (1214-1270) », sur Encyclopædia Universalis (consulté le 14 mai 2016).
80. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 203-204. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
81. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 205-206. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
82. "Louis IX - Peace, Reforms, Administration | Britannica". Encyclopedia Britannica.
83. Le Goff, 1996, p. 205. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
84. Bernard Lecomte, « Saint Louis, le roi chrétien : entrevue avec Jacques Le Goff », L'Express,‎ 11 janvier 1996 (lire en ligne, consulté le 3 mai 2016).
85. Éd. Ordonnances des rois de France de la troisième race (désormais abrégé Ordonnances), t. 1, Paris, 1723, traduction partielle de l’ordonnance dans M. Pastoureau, Jésus chez le teinturier. Couleurs et teintures dans l’Occident médiéval, Paris, 1997, p. 137-138 et autre traduction, complète, par G. Nahon, « Les ordonnances de saint Louis sur les Juifs », Les Nouveaux cahiers, 23, 1970, p. 23-42, p. 294.
86. Le Goff, 1996, p. 571. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
87. Collings, Andrew Jeffrey (2018). "The King Cannot be Everywhere: Royal Governance and Local Society in the Reign of Louis IX".
88. Henri François Juillerat e Théodore Monod, Archives du christianisme au XIXe siècle: journal religieux, Parigi, Juillerat-Chasseur, 1831, pp. 66, 67, ISSN 1245-706X, OCLC 716199906.
89. Le Goff, 1996, p. 168. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
90. Ле Гофф Ж. Людовик IX Святой. — М., 2001. — С. 175.
91. Le Goff, 1996, p. 169. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
92. Le Goff, 1996, p. 176. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
93. Le Goff, 1996, p. 191. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
94. Louis IX ou Saint Louis, encyclopédie Larousse, éditions Larousse, 2014, dossier « Moyen Âge » (lire en ligne), Le règne personnel de Louis IX, « La réforme administrative du royaume ».
95. Nangis: Chronicon, S. 399–401
96. Le Goff, 1996, p. 193. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
97. Svatý Ludvík, s. 171–173.
98. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 194-195. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
99. Praca zbiorowa: Historia powszechna - Od imperium Karola Wielkiego do kryzysu XIV wieku. T. 8. Mediaset Group SA, 2007, s. 152-153. ISBN 978-84-9819-815-7.
100. David Nirenberg : Antijudaïsme : Un pilier de la pensée occidentale, chap. 5, 2023, Éd. Labor et Fides, (ISBN 978-2830917994).
101. Parent du Châtelet, 1837, p. 346. ((FR) Alexandre Jean-Baptiste Parent du Châtelet, De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris, Parigi, Établissement encyclographique, 1837.)
102. Bobineau, Olivier (8 December 2011). "Retour de l'ordre religieux ou signe de bonne santé de notre pluralisme laïc ?". Le Monde.fr (in French). Retrieved 27 October 2015.
103. Henri François Juillerat (directeur de publication de 1818 à 1820) et Théodore Monod (directeur de publication de 1863 à 1868), Archives du christianisme au XIXe siècle : journal religieux, Paris, Juillerat-Chasseur, 1831, t. 1, no 1 (janvier 1818)-t. 15, no 12 (décembre 1832) ; 2e série, t. 1, no 1 (12 janvier 1833)-t. 26, no 23 (11 décembre 1858) ; 3e série, t. 1, no 1 (10 janvier 1859)-t. 6, no 36 (30 décembre 1864) ; 4e série, t. 1, no 1 (7 janvier 1865)-t. 3, no 52 (27 décembre 1867) ; 5e série, t. 1, no 1 (3 janvier 1868)-no 26 (26 juin 1868) (ISSN 1245-706X, OCLC 716199906, BNF 32701372, lire en ligne), p. 66, 67 « Tantôt on leur commandait de brûler leur Talmud et tous leurs autres livres, où se trouvait ce que l’on appelait des blasphèmes » [cf. note 2 → « Voyez ordonnance de Louis IX de 1254 »]. « Tantôt on leur ordonnait, pour satisfaire aux conciles d’Arles et de Latran, de faire coudre sur leurs robes de dessus, devant et derrière, une pièce de feutre ou de drap jaune de quatre palmes de circonférences » (cf. note 3 → « Règlement de Louis IX de 1269 ») « et même de porter, outre cette rouelle, comme on nommait cette pièce, une corne attachée à leur bonnet. D’autres fois on leur défendait d’avoir des habits de couleur, de se baigner dans les rivières où se baignaient les chrétiens, de préparer des médicaments et de toucher aux vivres dans les marchés à moins qu’ils ne les achetassent… »
104. Le Goff, 1996, p. 170. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
105. Alexandre Jean-Baptiste Parent du Châtelet, De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris, Paris, Établissement encyclographique, 1837, 392 p. (lire en ligne), p. 346.
106. Goyau, Pierre-Louis-Théophile-Georges (1910). "St. Louis IX" . Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9.
107. Le Goff, 1996, p. 174. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
108. J. LeGoff: Ludwig der Heilige, Teil III, Kapitel 8, S. 719
109. Pierre Vallaud, Chronologie des rois de France, Archipoche, coll. « essai, témoignage », 2011, 160 p. (ISBN 9782352873884, BNF 42510761, lire en ligne), « Louis IX (ou Saint Louis) », p. 49-50 « De sa générosité légendaire, néanmoins, sont exclus les cathares et les juifs. Il soutient l’Inquisition en Languedoc (Montségur tombe en 1244), oblige les juifs à porter la rouelle écarlate. »
110. Le Goff, 1996, p. 657. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
111. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 657-658. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
112. Le Goff, 1996, p. 659. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
113. Vallaud, 2011, pp. 49, 50. ((FR) Pierre Vallaud, Chronologie des rois de France, Archipoche, 2011, ISBN 9782352873884, bnf:42510761 .)
114. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 665-666. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
115. "St. Louis IX of France | EWTN". EWTN Global Catholic Television Network. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
116. Geoffrey Wigoder (directeur de publication) et Sylvie Anne Goldberg (adaptation) (trad. de l'anglais), Dictionnaire encyclopédique du judaïsme ; esquisse de l’histoire du peuple juif ; calendrier [1942-2022] [« The encyclopedia of judaism »], Paris, Éditions du Cerf, 1993, 1771 p. (ISBN 2-204-04541-1, BNF 36667039), p. 1276 « […] du procès contre le Talmud (1240) et la littérature rabbinique à l’obligation de porter la rouelle (1269), les mesures qu’il prend contre les Juifs ponctuent son règne mais elles partent toutes d’une motivation religieuse ; leur défendant de se livrer au prêt à intérêt, il tente de proposer une réinsertion sociale qui leur permette de pratiquer l’artisanat mais les structures de la société chrétienne vouent cette vague tentative à l’échec. »
117. L. Aurigemma: Le Signe zodiacal du scorpion dans les traditions occidentales de l’Antiquité gréco-latine à la Renaissance (Paris, 1976)
118. Le Goff, 1996, p. 554. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
119. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 671-672. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
120. Claude Lelièvre, Les rois de France : enfants chéris de la République, Paris, éditions Bartillat, 1999, 301 p. (ISBN 9782841002078, lire en ligne), p. 90.
121. Le Goff, 1996, p. 555. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
122. Le Goff, 1996, p. 680. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
123. "Burning of the Talmud". jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
124. Nachet, 1830, p. 129. ((FR) Louis Isidore Nachet, De la liberté religieuse en France, ou essai sur la législation relative à l'exercice de cette liberté, Parigi, Landois et Bigot, 1830, ISBN non esistente, OCLC 555763669.)
125. Le Goff, 1996, pp. 673-674. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
126. Richard, 1983, p. 108. ((FR) Jean Richard, Saint Louis : roi d’une France féodale, soutien de la Terre sainte, Fayard, 1983, ISBN 9782213648040, bnf:34741331 .)
127. Alain Boureau, L’événement sans fin : récit et christianisme au Moyen Âge, vol. 22, Les Belles Lettres, coll. « Histoire (ISSN 1140-2539) », 1993, 298 p., texte remanié d’articles extraits de diverses revues et publications, 1982-1989 (ISBN 9782251380216, BNF 35608834, lire en ligne), p. 232 « Mais entre-temps saint Louis avait ordonné la crémation de 1242. En 1244, puis 1248, Innocent IV confirma cette volonté de destruction. Le rôle central joué par Donin a conduit certains historiens à privilégier l’importance des contradictions. […] Un historien américain a proposé récemment de lier la crémation de 1242 et, plus généralement, la recrudescence de l’antisémitisme médiéval, aux ordres mendiants. […] À une autre échelle, l’événement de 1242 se banalise quand on l’intègre dans la longue chaîne de l’antijudaïsme et de l’antisémitisme,. Les spécialistes d’histoire juive ont tendance à dérouler un processus continu depuis saint Augustin. Le bûcher de 1242 ne serait que le sommet de l'apogée antisémite, marqué par les pogroms du XIIe siècle et par les canons du concile du Latran IV (1215) qui imposèrent aux juifs le port d'un signe distinctif » (N.D.L.R. : la rouelle).
128. Le Goff, 1996, p. 675. (Jacques Le Goff, San Luigi, Torino, Einaudi, 1996, ISBN 978-88-06-12700-8, SBN MIL0308690.)
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