Lunar eclipse

Mechanics and orbital geometry

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is situated directly between the Sun and the Moon, casting a shadow across the lunar surface.^[1][2][3][4] This geometric arrangement can take place only during a full moon, when the Moon is in opposition to the Sun relative to an Earth-based observer.^[3][5] Because the Sun illuminated body of the Earth is vastly larger than the Moon, the planet projects two distinct shadow zones into space: a central converging cone of complete shadow termed the umbra, and an expanding outer cone of partial shadow known as the penumbra.^[3][6] Direct solar radiation is entirely shielded within the umbra, whereas the penumbra permits varying fractions of sunlight to illuminate celestial bodies passing through it.^[6][7]

Lunar eclipses do not occur at every full moon because the orbital plane of the Moon is inclined by approximately 5 degrees and 9 minutes relative to the ecliptic plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun.^[5] As a result, the Moon usually travels either north or south of Earth's shadow cone at full moon. An eclipse can happen only when a full moon coincides with the Moon's passage through or near one of the two orbital intersections known as lunar nodes: the ascending node or descending node.^[3][5][8] The line connecting these nodes rotates retrogradely across the celestial sphere by 19.3 degrees per year, causing the line of nodes to point back toward the Sun every 173.31 days, a duration designated as half of an eclipse year. Eclipses occur only during eclipse seasons, when the Sun appears to pass near either node of the Moon's orbit.

The equatorial diameter of the Sun is about 109 times that of Earth, so Earth casts a converging umbral shadow cone 1,384,584 kilometers long. At the Moon's mean distance of 384,403 kilometers from Earth, the umbral shadow has a diameter of about 9,200 kilometers. By comparison, the Moon's diameter is 3,476 kilometers, so the umbra is about 2.65 times as wide as the Moon. Consequently, the Moon can fit entirely within the shadow cone, sustaining a prolonged total phase as it moves along its orbit.^[3]

The Moon remains visible even when completely immersed in Earth's umbra because solar rays passing tangentially through the terrestrial atmosphere are refracted inward into the shadow cone.^[9][10][11] As sunlight traverses this dense atmospheric layer, Rayleigh scattering preferentially removes shorter wavelengths, such as violet and blue light, while permitting longer red and orange wavelengths to penetrate.^{[8][10][11][12]} Refraction deflects this remaining light inward by up to 2.2 degrees, directing it onto the eclipsed lunar surface.^[10] The resulting hue ranges from bright copper to deep brownish-red.^[11][13] The darkness and exact color of totality depend on aerosol and dust levels in Earth's stratosphere; large volcanic eruptions that inject heavy ash clouds into the upper atmosphere, such as the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, cause total eclipses to appear unusually dark or nearly black.^[13][14]

Classification and types

Lunar eclipses are categorized into distinct classes based on the path of the Moon through Earth's shadow zones. These classes comprise penumbral eclipses, partial umbral eclipses, and total umbral eclipses, along with specialized subcategories including central eclipses and horizontal eclipses.^[15][16][17] The visibility, visual manifestation, and scientific characteristics vary substantially across these forms.

Penumbral lunar eclipse

A penumbral lunar eclipse takes place when the Moon passes solely through Earth's penumbral shadow without entering the umbra.^[15][16][17] In this region, the Earth partially obstructs the solar disk as seen from the Moon, causing a subtle reduction in lunar brightness.^[15][17] Penumbral eclipses are frequently indistinguishable to casual visual observers; a darkening of the lunar surface generally becomes discernible to the unaided human eye only when at least 60 to 70 percent of the Moon's diameter is submerged within the penumbra, corresponding to a penumbral magnitude exceeding 0.7.^[18][19][20] In a partial penumbral eclipse, only a portion of the lunar disk penetrates the penumbra, whereas during a total penumbral eclipse, the entire Moon is immersed exclusively in the penumbra without touching the umbral boundary.^[15][16][18]

Total penumbral eclipses are rare phenomena because the annular width of Earth's penumbral shadow is only about 11 percent wider than the Moon's diameter.^[18][21] As a result, the Moon must follow an exacting path through the penumbra to avoid touching the umbra on one side or empty space on the other. Total penumbral eclipses account for approximately 3.2 percent of all penumbral eclipses, occurring at an average rate of about three per century.^[16][22] When a total penumbral eclipse occurs, the limb of the Moon nearest the umbra appears noticeably darker than the opposing limb.^[18][22] The last total penumbral eclipse took place on 14 March 2006, and the next will occur on 29 August 2053.^[18][21][23]

Partial lunar eclipse

A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the Moon's disk enters Earth's umbral shadow cone, while the remaining portion resides in the penumbra or outside the shadow altogether.^[16][18][24] The boundary between the umbra and the illuminated region creates a clearly defined, curved dark edge across the lunar surface.^[24] Because the Moon travels along its orbit at an average speed of approximately 1.03 kilometers per second (2,300 miles per hour), which is slightly greater than its diameter per hour, partial phases can span several hours.^[25] The maximum duration of totality in full eclipses reaches approximately 106 to 108 minutes, but the total time interval from the initial contact of the lunar limb with Earth's umbra to its final exit during partial or total events can reach up to 236 minutes.^[16][25][26]

Total lunar eclipse

A total lunar eclipse occurs when the entire visible surface of the Moon enters Earth's umbral shadow.^[16][17][27] Immediately prior to second contact, the sliver of the lunar limb that remains exposed to direct sunlight produces an intense glare that visually dims the shadowed portions of the Moon.^[24][28] Once totality begins and the direct sunlight is completely cut off, the lunar disk appears uniformly illuminated by faint, refracted light, allowing background stars to become visible.^[24][28] The edges of the eclipsed Moon often appear brighter than the central region due to diffuse reflections from irregular surface topography along the limb, a visual property analogous to light reflecting from velvet fabric draped across a curved surface.^[28]

Central lunar eclipse

When the Moon passes directly through the geometrical center of Earth's umbra and contacts the antisolar point, the event is classified as a central lunar eclipse.^[29][30] Central eclipses represent 59.6 percent of all total lunar eclipses.^[22] Because the Moon traverses the widest portion of the umbral shadow cone, central eclipses exhibit the longest durations of totality and the deepest dimming.^[29] Orbital eccentricity causes the Moon's distance to vary between perigee at approximately 356,400 kilometers and apogee at 406,700 kilometers. At apogee, the Moon travels at its lowest orbital velocity, and because the umbra's width does not diminish substantially across this orbital range, an eclipse coinciding with lunar apogee produces the longest potential total phase.^[31]

Selenelion

A selenelion, also termed a selenehelion or horizontal eclipse, occurs when both the Sun and an eclipsed Moon are visible above opposite horizons at the same time.^[32][33][34] Geometrically, the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned in a straight line during totality, which would place both celestial bodies below opposite horizons for a terrestrial observer.^[32] However, atmospheric refraction bends the light from both bodies, lifting their apparent visual positions by approximately 0.5 degrees relative to their true geometric positions.^[32][35] Observers stationed at elevated viewpoints or on high mountain ridges experiencing sunrise or sunset can witness the rising Sun and the totally eclipsed setting Moon simultaneously.^[32][33]

Visual appearance and photometry

To classify the darkness and chromatic appearance of the eclipsed Moon during totality, French astronomer André Danjon developed an empirical scale ranging from zero to four.^[36] Under the Danjon scale, L equals 0 denotes a very dark eclipse where the Moon is nearly invisible, particularly at mid-totality.^[36] An L value of 1 corresponds to a dark eclipse with gray or brownish coloration and barely discernible lunar surface details.^[36] An index of L equals 2 indicates a deep red or rust-colored eclipse featuring a very dark central shadow and a relatively bright outer umbral boundary.^[36] An L rating of 3 represents a brick-red eclipse where the umbra is surrounded by a yellowish border.^[36] The highest rating, L equals 4, denotes an orange or bright copper-red eclipse characterized by a bluish umbral rim.^[36] The rating must be assigned at mid-totality, though different observers and varying surface locations across the Moon may exhibit different Danjon values during the same eclipse.

During totality, observers often record a distinct blue or turquoise band along the boundary separating the umbra from the penumbra, a phenomenon known as the turquoise fringe.^[37] This blue tint arises from ozone absorption in Earth's upper stratosphere.^[37] Sunlight passing through the upper stratosphere crosses the ozone layer, which absorbs red light, so the remaining blue light is refracted onto the edge of the eclipsed Moon.^[37] The blue band was photographed in Germany during the total lunar eclipse of 4 May 2007, and on 13 February 2008 NASA Science News proposed the name turquoise fringe for it. Spectroscopic and photographic measurements of this blue edge have provided a method for calculating the vertical distribution and thickness of Earth's ozone layer.^[37][38][39]

The apparent visual magnitude of the Moon drops substantially during an eclipse. Under normal full moon conditions, the Moon shines at a visual magnitude of roughly minus 12.5, but during a central total eclipse, its brightness drops to approximately plus 2, representing a luminance reduction by a factor of 600,000. At the center of the umbra, the light intensity falls by a factor of 1 to 2 million. After the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, some very dark eclipses were observed, in which the Moon's brightness can fall to about plus 5, a dimming factor of 10 million. Under such conditions, the lower limit of residual illumination is maintained primarily by sunlight from the solar corona, which is only partially occulted by Earth's globe. Exceptionally dark eclipses occurred on 30 December 1963 and during two total eclipses in 1913, when the eclipsed Moon seemed to vanish entirely from the night sky.^[40][41][42]

Human perception and photographic sensors encounter distinct optical challenges during lunar eclipses. Prior to totality, human vision perceives the advancing umbra as black because the high contrast from the adjacent illuminated lunar surface causes visual glare. In reality, the shadowed part turns dark red from the start, but the glare hides this color, which shows gradually as the glare fades. The same applies to cameras, which tend to render the brightest part of the image, so in videos the Moon seems to turn red only once it is darkened. A nearly totally eclipsed Moon that still shows a small, faintly curved white crescent at its edge is sometimes said to show the fingernail effect.

Contact stages and timing

The chronological progression of a total lunar eclipse is structured around seven standard contact points that mark the geometrical encounters between the lunar limb and Earth's shadow boundaries.^[43] First contact (P1) designates the start of the penumbral eclipse, when the Moon's outer limb first touches the exterior perimeter of the penumbra.^[43] Second contact (U1) denotes the beginning of the partial eclipse, occurring when the lunar limb touches the outer boundary of the umbra.^[43] Third contact (U2) marks the onset of totality, when the entire lunar disk is submerged within the umbra.^[43] Greatest eclipse represents the moment of maximum occultation, when the center of the lunar disk reaches its closest angular approach to the center of the umbra.^[43] Fourth contact (U3) marks the conclusion of totality as the Moon's leading limb begins to exit the umbra.^[43] Fifth contact (U4) denotes the end of the partial eclipse as the trailing limb clears the umbra.^[43] Finally, sixth contact (P4) marks the end of the penumbral eclipse when the Moon entirely disengages from the penumbral shadow.^[43]

During partial eclipses, contacts U2 and U3 do not occur, and in penumbral eclipses, contacts U1, U2, U3, and U4 are entirely absent.^[44] The total theoretical span of a lunar eclipse from P1 to P4 can reach approximately 6 hours when the lunar path passes directly through the umbral center. Lunar orbital velocity averages 1.03 km/s, allowing the total phase to last up to nearly 107 minutes under optimal conditions.^[16][25] Eclipses occurring when the Moon is near apogee have their totality lengthened because the Moon travels at its minimum orbital velocity, whereas events taking place near perigee exhibit shorter total durations but present larger apparent angular lunar diameters.^[31]

The physical dimensions of Earth's shadow deviate systematically from purely geometric projections due to terrestrial atmospheric effects and the flattening of the globe.^[45] Earth's polar flattening reduces the lunar parallax by 1/500 at a mean latitude of 45 degrees, whereas atmospheric refraction expands the effective radius of the umbral shadow cone by 1/50, or approximately 2 percent.^[45] This shadow enlargement, first recognized by French astronomer Philippe de La Hire in the early 18th century, renders the boundary of the umbra diffuse and washed out rather than sharp.^[45] To account for this enlargement in predictive ephemerides, astronomers traditionally increase the calculated umbral radius by 2 percent.^[45] An alternative calculation method, adopted by the French Bureau des Longitudes in Connaissance des Temps, applies a different atmospheric correction that results in eclipse magnitudes being 0.005 smaller for umbral eclipses and 0.026 smaller for penumbral eclipses relative to traditional methods.^[46][47]

Mathematical calculation and ephemerides

The size of Earth's shadow (S) can be expressed in terms of the lunar parallax (Pl), the solar parallax (Ps) and the solar semi-diameter (Ss), by the relation S = Pl + Ps - Ss. The angular radius of the penumbra (P) at the Moon's distance is expressed by the formula P = Pl + Ps + Ss + (Pl / Sl), where Sl represents the semi-diameter of the Moon.

To determine the exact angular distance (sigma) between the Moon and the center of Earth's shadow, modern astronomers employ a spherical coordinate system whose polar axis extends from the Sun through the center of the Earth toward the antisolar point.^[48] Using the equatorial coordinates of the Sun (alpha_s, delta_s) and the Moon (alpha_m, delta_m), the coordinates of the shadow axis are given by a = alpha_s + 180 degrees and d = -delta_s. The Moon's position is normalized to unit Earth-Moon distance using Cartesian components x and y, where x = sin(delta_m) * cos(d) - cos(delta_m) * sin(d) * cos(alpha_m - a) and y = cos(delta_m) * sin(alpha_m - a).^[49] The angular separation sigma is then approximated by the formula sigma = sqrt(x^2 + y^2). Transformation between coordinate systems is executed by multiplying the lunar unit position vector by a rotation matrix D derived from the solar coordinates.^[50] The contact times correspond to predetermined separation values (L1, L2, L3) defined by the sums and differences of the lunar radius and the umbral and penumbral shadow radii (f1, f2), which constitute the Besselian elements of the lunar eclipse.^[49]

Historical predictive algorithms were also developed in the Islamic world and South Asia. In the Zij-i Bahadurkhani, the astronomer Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri formulated analytical procedures to compute eclipse visibility and timing.^[51] Jaunpuri gave as conditions for a lunar eclipse to be observable that the Moon is no more than 12 degrees and 28 minutes from an orbital node, and that the event takes place during the night, no more than 2 hours and 4 minutes after sunrise, or no more than 2 hours and 4 minutes before sunset.^[51] The algorithm calculates time variables k and T based on the fractional calendar year, evaluates the mean solar anomaly M, the mean lunar anomaly M prime, and the lunar argument of latitude F, and establishes an eclipse criterion: if the difference between F and the nearest multiple of 180 degrees is less than 13.9 degrees, an eclipse is certain, whereas a difference exceeding 21 degrees precludes an eclipse. Auxiliary trigonometric equations yield intermediate parameters (C, S, v, u, p, t, and n), which determine the Julian Day of mid-totality and compute the duration of totality and partiality using radical formulas involving p, t, and v.^[52]

The depth of an eclipse is quantified by its magnitude, defined as the fraction of the lunar diameter obscured by Earth's shadow along the line connecting the shadow center and the lunar center.^[18][53] For umbral eclipses, the umbra's diameter is roughly 2.63 times the lunar diameter on average, yielding umbral magnitudes ranging from 0 to 1.815. Values between 0 and 1 designate partial eclipses, whereas values equal to or exceeding 1 denote total eclipses.^[18] For penumbral eclipses, the ratio of penumbral width to lunar diameter averages 1.03, producing penumbral magnitudes between 0 and 1 for partial penumbral events and greater than 1 for total penumbral events.^[18] In ancient and medieval astronomy, as codified by Ptolemy in the Almagest, eclipse magnitudes were measured in eclipse digits, with 12 digits representing total coverage of the lunar disk.^[54][55][56]

Periodicity and cycles

The occurrence of lunar eclipses is governed by orbital cycles, producing between two and five lunar eclipses each calendar year when penumbral events are included.^[57][58][59] When considering only umbral eclipses, the annual count ranges from zero to three.^[1][60][61] The 21st century features 228 lunar eclipses, comprising an average of 2.28 eclipses per year, of which 85 are total, 57 are partial, and 86 are penumbral.^[18][57][62] Over a 5,000-year canon spanning 2000 BCE to 3000 CE, 36.3 percent of all lunar eclipses are penumbral, 34.9 percent are partial umbral, and 28.8 percent are total umbral.^[22]

Eclipse occurrences repeat in predictable sequences governed by the Saros cycle, a period recognized since antiquity by Babylonian astronomers.^[63][64] The Saros arises from a numerical resonance among three lunar orbital periods: 223 synodic months (the cycle of lunar phases, totaling 6,585.32 days), 242 draconic months (the nodal passage cycle, totaling 6,585.36 days), and 19 eclipse years (the passage of the Sun through the same node, totaling 6,585.78 days).^[65] These periods synchronize closely at 6,585.3 days, equivalent to 18 calendar years, 11 days, and approximately 8 hours (or 10 days and 8 hours if the span contains 5 leap years).^[63][64] During one Saros period, approximately 70 to 71 eclipses occur, of which 28 or 29 are lunar and 42 or 43 are solar.^[66]

On shorter timescales, eclipses occur within semester cycles, which serve as the fundamental structural unit of eclipse series. Following an eclipse, the Moon reaches full phase again one synodic month later, but the distance to the orbital node is usually too large to permit another eclipse. After six lunations (approximately 177 days), the Moon arrives near the opposite node, producing another eclipse if the angular nodal distance is less than the eclipse limit. Because six lunations are slightly longer than half an eclipse year (173.31 days), the node passage at full moon arrives approximately four days late each semester, shifting the nodal distance by about 4 degrees along the ecliptic. A semester cycle contains 8 to 10 lunar eclipses and lasts about four years; the full moon approaches the node, reaches its smallest distance from it in the most conspicuous eclipse of the cycle and then moves away again, with inconspicuous penumbral eclipses at the beginning and end.

Astronomical historical canons, including Theodor von Oppolzer's calculations covering the 3,369-year span between 1207 BCE and 2162 CE, record 8,000 solar eclipses and 5,200 lunar eclipses, confirming that solar eclipses outnumber lunar eclipses globally in a ratio of approximately three to two.^[61][67][68] Nonetheless, lunar eclipses are far more frequently witnessed from any specific geographic location because each lunar eclipse is visible across Earth's entire night hemisphere, whereas total solar eclipses trace narrow ground tracks rarely exceeding 270 to 300 kilometers in width.^{[5][61][64][69]} Modern computational modeling by NASA has achieved high precision, though historic recalculations have occasionally revised earlier predictions; for instance, in 1989 NASA published an eclipse for August 2016 that subsequent 2009 models proved would not occur, while a non-existent eclipse in February 1951 was similarly corrected.^[70][71]

The maximum duration of a total lunar eclipse is achieved when the Moon is near apogee and passes centrally through Earth's umbra.^[31] The longest total lunar eclipse took place on 31 May 318 CE, with a total phase lasting up to 1 hour and 47 minutes.^[72] In the modern era, notable long-duration total eclipses occurred on 16 July 2000 (1 hour 46 minutes to 1 hour 47 minutes), 6 July 1982 (1 hour 46 minutes), and 27 July 2018 (1 hour 43 minutes).^{[26][73][74][75]} An upcoming total central eclipse on 26 June 2029 is projected to last 1 hour and 42 minutes, during which the center of the lunar disk will pass almost precisely through the center of Earth's umbral cone while the Moon is near perigee.^[26] On 21 December 2010, a total lunar eclipse coincided with the winter solstice for the first time in 372 years, an alignment that will next recur on 21 December 2094.^[76]

Observational practice and astrophotography

Unlike solar eclipses, which require certified optical filters to prevent retinal damage, lunar eclipses are safe to observe with the naked eye, binoculars, or telescopes because the eclipsed Moon reflects attenuated sunlight that is dimmer than a normal full moon.^[77][78] Amateur astronomers can use lunar eclipses to observe occultations of faint stars, and even of planets and asteroids, which the large difference in brightness otherwise makes impossible. Telescopic observers sometimes place a transparent cyan filter on the telescope eyepiece to suppress red light, which accentuates subtle blue and green color gradations within the umbra and enhances the sharpness of the umbral shadow boundary.^[79]

When photographing a lunar eclipse, the difference in brightness between the part of the Moon lit directly by the Sun and the part in the umbra can span twenty exposure stops, more than a single exposure can capture. Exposure time (t) in seconds can be calculated from the lens aperture f-number (k), the ISO exposure index (S_i), and the scene exposure value (EV) using the formula t = 100 * (k^2 / (2^EV * S_i)).^[80] When using a stationary tripod, the maximum exposure time (t_max) before lunar diurnal motion causes perceptible blur is estimated by the rule of thumb t_max = alpha / 6, where alpha is the camera lens field of view in degrees.^[81] Format-filling photographs taken with telephoto lenses (field of view of 0.7 degrees) require exposures shorter than one-tenth of a second unless mounted on an equatorial motorized tracking drive.^[81][82] To manage digital sensor noise and thermal heating during long exposures, photographers employ active sensor cooling, high-dynamic-range exposure bracketing, and image stacking software to combine multiple frames into composite images.^[83] The colour temperature can be set to about 4,100 Kelvin, the neutral white value of light reflected by the full Moon, whereas higher values such as the 5,500 Kelvin of direct sunlight give images with a stronger red component.

View from the lunar surface

From the perspective of an observer or instrument located on the lunar surface, a terrestrial lunar eclipse corresponds to a total solar eclipse in which the Earth occults the Sun.^[3][84][85] Because Earth's apparent diameter in the lunar sky is approximately four times larger than the Sun's diameter, the planet completely blocks direct sunlight for hours.^[3][86] Instead of vanishing, the dark disk of the Earth is ringed by a brilliant red-orange halo produced by sunlight refracting through the entire perimeter of the terrestrial atmosphere, corresponding to all the sunrises and sunsets occurring simultaneously on Earth.^[11][84][85]

This sight has been documented by robotic spacecraft on and around the Moon. On 24 April 1967, the television camera aboard the Surveyor 3 lunar lander recorded Earth eclipsing the Sun from the lunar surface.^[84][85] On 9 February 2009, the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE (Kaguya) filmed the Sun being eclipsed by Earth from its orbit around the Moon.^[85] Because it filmed from within the penumbra, the Sun was not completely hidden, but a diamond ring effect produced by Earth was observed.^[87] In 2025, the Blue Ghost Mission 1 lander captured color imagery of a terrestrial eclipse from the lunar surface.^[88]

The cutoff of solar radiation during totality produces an extreme thermal shock on the lunar surface. Because the Moon lacks an atmosphere to retain heat, surface temperatures in direct sunlight exceed 130 degrees Celsius.^[89] When Earth's umbra sweeps across the lunar landscape, the surface temperature plunges rapidly to below minus 99 degrees Celsius, resulting in a temperature drop of approximately 229 degrees Celsius within roughly an hour and a half.^[89] Once totality ends and direct sunlight returns, the surface temperature rebounds to its original level with equal speed.^[89] The visual drama of an eclipsed Earth seen from the Moon has also inspired space artists, including Lucien Rudaux, Ludek Pesek, Chesley Bonestell, and David Hardy, whose paintings depict the glowing copper-red lunar landscape under the dark silhouette of Earth crowned by atmospheric refraction, the solar corona, and zodiacal light.^[84][85]

Historical and scientific milestones

Lunar eclipses have served as foundational observational evidence in the history of science. In the 4th century BCE, the Greek philosopher Aristotle demonstrated that the Earth is spherical by observing that the shadow cast upon the Moon during a lunar eclipse is always circular, an outcome that could be produced only by a spherical body regardless of the eclipse geometry.^[90][91][92] Aristarchus was the first to try to calculate the sizes of and distances between the Earth, Moon and Sun from a lunar eclipse; he found that the Sun is much farther from Earth than the Moon and much larger than the Moon, and concluded that the Sun, not the Earth, should be regarded as the centre of the universe.^[92] The Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who lived from 180 to 125 BCE, calculated the size of the Moon and its distance from Earth by observing Earth's shadow during a lunar eclipse. In ancient Rome, Lucretius examined potential physical mechanisms of eclipses in De rerum natura, contemplating both the passage of obscure celestial bodies and intrinsic dimming.^[93] Roman historian Tacitus recorded that during the mutiny of the Pannonian legions in 14 CE following the death of Augustus, a sudden lunar eclipse on 27 September terrified the rebellious soldiers, who interpreted the darkening Moon as an omen of divine displeasure; their commander, Drusus, who did not share their beliefs, sought to take advantage of their fear.^[94][95]

In ancient China, the earliest surviving records of lunar eclipses appear on Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions from the late second millennium BCE.^[96][97] Theoretical comprehension advanced during the Han dynasty, when astronomer Zhang Heng (78–139 CE) explained that lunar eclipses occur when the Earth obstructs the sunlight traveling toward the Moon, designating Earth's shadow as the anxu (dark void).^[98] In Japan, imperial annals documented eclipses, with early mentions in the Nihon Shoki recording eclipses during the reigns of Empress Kogyoku (in the second year of her reign) and Emperor Tenmu (in the ninth year of his reign), while courtier Kujo Kanezane recorded solemn prayers during medieval eclipses in his diary Gyokuyo.^{[99][100][101]}

On his second voyage to Hispaniola, Christopher Columbus observed the lunar eclipse of 14–15 September 1494 and, by comparing the times of its beginning and end with those recorded in the tables of Granollachs, deduced the longitude. A decade later, during his fourth voyage, Columbus and his crew were marooned on Jamaica in 1504.^[102][103] When the indigenous inhabitants ceased providing food supplies, Columbus consulted Abraham Zacuto's astronomical almanac, the Almanach Perpetuum, and predicted the total lunar eclipse of 29 February (or 1 March) 1504.^[102][103] He informed the native leaders that God was displeased with their refusal to supply provisions and would demonstrate this by taking away the Moon.^[103] When the Moon turned dark and reddish, the terrified indigenous population resumed provisioning the Spanish crew.^[102][103]

Juan Lopez de Velasco, appointed chief cosmographer to King Philip II of Spain in 1572, wrote rules at the king's request for the correct observation of the lunar eclipse of 1577 in Spain and the Americas and designed a special instrument to observe it, sending out a model so that it could be built anywhere; the observations made it possible to fix the longitude of many places. In 1577, Philip II sent the Valencian Joan Jacme Ferrer to Mexico and the Philippines to calculate their longitude. Total eclipses are used in space geodesy to link continental trigonometric networks, and occultations of stars by the Moon are used for the same purpose. Public perceptions of eclipses still attract astrological claims regarding health effects, such as the notion of dangerous eclipse corridors, but Ruslan Koshelev, a physician at a Moscow regional clinical research institute, has stated that, from the standpoint of physics, chemistry and medicine, a lunar eclipse has no direct effect on human health, and NASA specialists have described the link drawn between eclipse corridors and misfortune as an example of confirmation bias.^{[104][105][106][107]} Unsubstantiated claims occasionally circulate in the press, such as false reports published by several Ukrainian media outlets on 27 May 2018 about a lunar eclipse supposedly due that day.^[108][109]

Cultural beliefs and religious traditions

Numerous cultures have developed mythologies interpreting lunar eclipses as celestial animals consuming the Moon. Ancient Egyptians viewed the eclipse as a black sow swallowing the lunar orb for a brief period.^[110][111] In Mayan mythology, a cosmic jaguar was believed to devour the Moon, while traditional Chinese folklore included tales of a mythical three-legged toad named Chan Chu swallowing the satellite.^[110][112] The Incas similarly believed that a celestial jaguar attacked and ate the Moon, producing its blood-red appearance.^[111][113] Fearing that the jaguar would descend to Earth to devour terrestrial animals after finishing the Moon, Incan communities shouted, threw spears at the sky, and intentionally beat their dogs to make them howl, believing that the cries of innocent creatures would evoke pity from the supreme creator Illa Tiqsi Wiracocha and drive the beast away.^[111][114]

In Chinese folklore, eclipses were commonly attributed to a heavenly dragon or other wild beasts biting the Moon, prompting citizens to ring bells, beat gongs, and make loud noises to frighten the predator.^[115][116] As late as the 19th century, the Chinese Navy fired its shipboard artillery during a lunar eclipse to scare off the celestial creature.^[117][118] In Chinese, a lunar eclipse is popularly called tiangou eating the moon.^[119] The Xieji Bianfang, quoting the Shuyao Li, describes the Tiangou as a malign deity in the Moon, and one account argues from this that the phrase is a modern mistake and that ancient China spoke only of the Tiangou eating the Sun, although the phrase does appear in older Chinese and Korean poetry. In Vietnam, a folk practice called saving the Moon involved beating wooden gongs and throwing stones to drive away what people believed was a heavenly dog or a bear eating the Moon.

In ancient Mesopotamia, lunar eclipses were perceived as an assault on the Moon by seven demons.^[113][120] Because Mesopotamian religious cosmology closely linked heavenly phenomena with terrestrial governance, and because the king represented the entire land, an attack on the Moon was considered a direct mortal threat to the monarch.^[113][120] To protect the genuine ruler, Mesopotamians instituted the substitute king ritual (sar puhi), placing a temporary surrogate on the throne to absorb the divine omen while the true king went into hiding.^[113][120] After the eclipse concluded and the danger passed, the substitute king was made to disappear, possibly by poisoning.^{[111][113][120]}

In Hindu tradition, lunar eclipses were explained through the myth of Rahu, told in the Bhagavata Purana among other texts and set during the churning of the Ocean of Milk. When the demigods and demons churned the ocean to obtain the nectar of immortality (amrita), the demon Rahu took the form of a demigod to receive a share. The Moon god Soma, or in another account the Sun and the Moon, recognized the deception, and Vishnu severed Rahu's head with his Sudarshana Chakra. Because Rahu already had the nectar in his mouth, his head became immortal and remained in the sky; the head and body became known as Rahu and Ketu, which in astronomy correspond to the two points where the paths of the Sun and the Moon cross. In revenge, Rahu continually chases and swallows the Sun and Moon, but because his throat is severed, the celestial bodies eventually re-emerge.^[121] Eclipses are regarded as spiritually inauspicious (ashubha), prompting devout Hindus to remain indoors and bathe in the holy Ganges River afterward to attain purification.^[122]

. Muslims are instructed to perform a dedicated congregational prayer during a lunar eclipse, known as Salat al-Khusuf or Salat al-Ayat (the Prayer of the Signs).^[123][124] In Shia jurisprudence, reciting Salat al-Ayat during a lunar eclipse is an obligatory duty (wajib) for all adult believers residing in the region of visibility, whereas in Sunni tradition, it is classified as an emphatic sunnah practice.^[123][124]

In Jewish scripture, the prophet Joel mentions lunar and solar eclipses as signs of the end of days: The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord come.^[125] In the Babylonian Talmud (tractate Sukkah 29a), an eclipse of the Moon is described as a bad omen for Israel because the Jewish calendar calculates months by lunar cycles, and the Moon is allegorically associated with Jacob.^[126][127] However, the Talmud qualifies this by quoting Jeremiah's command not to fear heavenly signs, explaining that Israel has nothing to fear from celestial phenomena when fulfilling divine commandments.^[126][128] In his book Be'er ha-Golah, the Maharal asked how the Talmud could link eclipses to human sin when they follow the motion of the luminaries and their times are known by calculation, and answered with his principle of the cause of the cause: the motion of the luminaries is the near cause, but because the world contains sin, God did not from the beginning of creation give the luminaries a light that could not be eclipsed. In contrast, the 19th-century Italian Jewish scholar Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal) asserted in his commentary on Genesis that treating celestial eclipses as supernatural omens was a pagan error, arguing that Moses and Jeremiah taught that eclipses are natural laws established by divine decree.^[129] Halakhic opinions differ on whether to recite the blessing Oseh Ma'aseh Bereshit upon witnessing a lunar eclipse, with many authorities ruling against it because traditional sources historically associated the event with an omen of misfortune.^{[130][131][132]}

Diverse regional folklore traditions interpret lunar eclipses through localized narratives. The Hupa of northern California believed the Moon maintained a household of twenty wives and a menagerie of lions and leopards; when the Moon failed to provide adequate food, the beasts attacked him, causing him to bleed until his wives intervened to heal his wounds.^[111] The Batammaliba people of Togo and Benin view an eclipse as a feud between the Sun and Moon, gathering during the event to resolve human interpersonal conflicts and make peace with enemies.^[111] In Bashkir belief, an eclipse meant the Moon had been offended or made ill by human sins, so people made children and livestock cry out, in the belief that the Moon would pity the sinless creatures and return to the sky; in other legends the Moon had been stolen by evil beings, and people beat iron, fired guns and prayed to frighten them away. In Burkina Faso, popular lore holds that a cosmic cat has caught the Moon (djakouma ye kalo mine), prompting communities to play musical instruments and sing supplications urging the cat to release it.^[133][134] Traditional Bulgarian folklore held that sorceresses and wanderers used magic to drag the Moon down to Earth to harvest supernatural knowledge.^[135] In modern Western culture, evangelical author John Hagee popularized the Blood Moon Prophecy around 2014–2015, asserting that four consecutive total lunar eclipses without intervening partial eclipses (a lunar tetrad) presaged global disasters.^{[136][137][138][139]} In contemporary literature and arts, the blood moon has inspired poetry by Balearic writers Miquel Lopez Crespi and Joan Francesc Lopez Casasnovas, as well as the premise of the 2022 Netflix television series If Only (Si j'avais su).^{[140][141][142][143]}

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