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Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria

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Contents
  1. (Top)
  2. Early life and military career
  3. Accession to Zweibrücken and Bavaria
  4. Electoral reign and internal reforms
  5. Napoleonic alliance and creation of the kingdom
  6. Reforms and administration as king
  7. The Russian campaign and Coalition War
  8. Congress of Vienna and later reign
  9. Cultural patronage and urban development
  10. Marriages and issue
  11. Death and succession
  12. References
Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria
Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria
Born27 May 1756
Died13 October 1825 (aged 69)
Reign as King of Bavaria1 January 1806 – 13 October 1825
Reign as Elector of Bavaria16 February 1799 – 1 January 1806
HouseHouse of Wittelsbach (Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken)
SpousesPrincess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt; Princess Karoline of Baden
SuccessorLudwig I of Bavaria
Burial placeTheatine Church, Munich

Maximilian I Joseph (27 May 1756 – 13 October 1825) was Duke of Zweibrücken from 1795, Prince-Elector of Bavaria and the Palatinate from 1799, and the first King of Bavaria from 1806 until his death. A member of the Palatinate-Birkenfeld-Zweibrücken branch of the House of Wittelsbach, he unified the Bavarian territories and elevated Bavaria to a kingdom through an alliance with Napoleon Bonaparte. Guided by his minister Count Maximilian von Montgelas, his administration instituted wide-ranging legal, administrative, and economic reforms, culminating in early constitutional charters.

Early life and military career

Maximilian Maria Michael Johann Baptist Franz de Paula Joseph Kaspar Ignatius Nepomuk was born on 27 May 1756. His parents were Count Palatine Frederick Michael of Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld-Bischweiler (1724–1767) and Countess Palatine Maria Francisca of Sulzbach (1724–1794), a granddaughter of Elector Charles III Philip of the Palatinate. Frederick Michael had converted to Roman Catholicism in 1746. After the death of his father from testicular cancer in 1767, Maximilian was left without immediate parental care, as his mother had been banished from court after giving birth to a son fathered by an actor.

Maximilian's upbringing was supervised by his paternal uncle, Duke Christian IV of Zweibrücken, who accommodated the young prince at the Hôtel des Deux-Ponts.[1] He was educated by French preceptors, including the theologian Pierre de Salabert, Abbot of Tholey, and the French officer Louis-Félix Agathon Guynement de Keralio, who instructed him in the spirit of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile.[2] Maximilian grew up speaking French with greater ease than German, and he joined the Freemasons.[2] In 1776 he received the County of Rappoltstein from his older brother, Charles II August..[1][3] He was the last lord to reside at the castle of the lords of Ribeaupierre in Ribeauvillé.[4] In 1781 he became an honorary member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences.[3]

From 1770 he served nominally in the French army in the Royal Alsace foreign regiment, in which he was made colonel in 1776..[2][5][6] He rose rapidly to the rank of major-general (maréchal de camp).[1][2] From 1782 until 1789 he was garrisoned at Strasbourg.[1][7] During his years in Strasbourg, Klemens von Metternich, the future Austrian chancellor, attended the local university and was accommodated in Maximilian's residence.[3][8][9] With the outbreak of the French Revolution, Maximilian left French service, accepted a commission in the Austrian army, and participated in the opening campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars.[1][7]

Following revolutionary unrest and the storming of the Bastille, Maximilian fled Strasbourg with his family, first taking refuge in Darmstadt, the home city of his wife, and subsequently moving to Mannheim.[10][11] Elector Charles Theodore of Bavaria denied Maximilian and his family permission to take refuge in Bavaria, having long harbored hostility toward the Zweibrücken line over their resistance to his earlier plans to exchange Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands.[10] Charles Theodore also suspected Maximilian of membership in the Illuminati, an association shared with the exiled Bavarian official Maximilian von Montgelas.[10]

Accession to Zweibrücken and Bavaria

Maximilian had not originally been anticipated to inherit the ancestral territories. His elder brother, Duke Charles II August, was next in line to the Bavarian electorate after the childless Charles Theodore, but Charles August's only son, Prince Charles August Frederick, died in 1785 in childhood. On 1 April 1795, Charles August died unexpectedly, and Maximilian succeeded him as Duke of Zweibrücken.[1][7] The territory of the duchy, however, was completely occupied by the French revolutionary armies.[1][12] After riots broke out in Mannheim, Maximilian moved his court in exile to Brandenburg-Ansbach, then Prussian territory, which maintained neutrality under the Peace of Basel.[12] There, together with his advisor Maximilian von Montgelas, he drafted the Ansbacher Memoire, an outline for comprehensive administrative reforms.[12] In 1797, Maximilian concluded the Ansbach House Treaty with Duke William in Bavaria of the Palatinate-Gelnhausen line, formally affirming the unity and indivisibility of all Wittelsbach territories.[13]

On 16 February 1799, Elector Charles Theodore suffered a stroke and died in Munich.[1][14] With his death, the Palatinate-Sulzbach branch became extinct, leaving Maximilian as the direct heir to all remaining Wittelsbach possessions.[1] The combined electoral territories of Palatinate-Bavaria represented the third-largest sovereign domain in the Holy Roman Empire, behind only the Habsburg monarchy and Brandenburg-Prussia. Charles Theodore had disliked his Zweibrücken cousins, but his second wife, the 22-year-old Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este, actively opposed Austrian territorial designs and informed Maximilian immediately of the elector's impending death via private couriers.[15][16] Her actions thwarted attempts by the Austrian envoy, Count Joseph Johann von Seilern, to secure Charles Theodore's signature on deathbed agreements favorable to Austria, probably cessions of territory or similar clauses in his will.

Maximilian entered Munich without incident and assumed power as Elector Maximilian IV Joseph. On the day of Charles Theodore's death, he issued a patent of possession (Besitz-Ergreifungs-Patent) asserting his right of rule by divine providence and requiring steadfast loyalty from his subjects.[14] On 17 April 1799, he directed the mandatory use of the style By the Grace of God (von Gottes Gnaden) on all official electoral documents.[17]

Electoral reign and internal reforms

Upon his accession, Maximilian found the Bavarian military in extreme disorganization: regiments were far below authorized numbers, discipline and training were lacking, and the uniforms introduced under Count Rumford were widely disliked and impractical.[1] The scattered 17,000 Bavarian soldiers were subordinate to Austrian commanders. Drawing on his French military background, Maximilian initiated sweeping army reorganizations, assisted by competent generals such as Bernhard Erasmus von Deroy, Carl Philipp von Wrede, and Anton von Triva, restructuring the army according to French doctrine.

In the newly organized ministry, Count Maximilian von Montgelas, who had earlier served for a time as Maximilian's private secretary, was the most powerful influence.[1] Maximilian developed and modernized the Bavarian administration together with Montgelas until he dismissed him in 1817 at the request of Crown Prince Ludwig..[5][6] Maximilian supported Montgelas consistently against conservative court factions and clerical criticism.

Maximilian had accumulated substantial personal debts amounting to 3,659,068 florins, which equaled 63 percent of the annual state revenue of 5,767,712 florins.[18] Court expenditures were transferred directly to the Secret Financial Department under sovereign command.[19] After the state treasury amortized his private debts, Maximilian decreed on 20 October 1804 that any future personal debts of the reigning monarch could not be assumed as public obligations.[20][21] To address severe financial pressures, the government introduced direct levies, including taxes on real estate, buildings, trades, families, draft livestock, debt liquidation, interest returns, and capital.[22][23] Compulsory loans were imposed, state salaries were reduced at Christmas 1806, and all households were required to report comprehensive family assets under penalty of paying ten to twelve times the concealed sum.[24][25][26]

The government also pursued rigorous central control over cultural and religious institutions. In May 1800, Maximilian closed the Jesuit-influenced University of Ingolstadt and moved it to Landshut.[1][27] A monastery commission was appointed on 25 January 1802, initiating Bavarian secularization.[28] Monastic properties were seized, foreign monastics were given three days to depart along mandated routes, and monastic libraries were prohibited from selling their books or manuscripts.[29][30][31] Tenant farmers working monastic lands were permitted to obtain ownership by paying state-assessed purchase prices.[32] Secular courts and regional magistrates took over church administration, church silverware and gem-encrusted objects were confiscated or auctioned, and on 1 November 1802 the electoral ecclesiastical council was dissolved.[22][33][34]

To increase working days, a decree of 4 December 1801 eliminated numerous traditional religious holidays, pilgrimages, patron saint festivals, and cross walks.[35] Employers and heads of household were fined one gulden for each violation, while resisting journeymen and servants faced criminal prosecution.[35] In June 1802, journeymen in Munich rebelled against forced work on Pentecost Monday, leading to physical clashes with police, military intervention, interrogations of 167 artisans, and public whippings.[36] In 1803, Pentecost equestrian rides (Pfingstritte) and indoor church parades were prohibited.[37][38] Local parishes were ordered to demolish roadside chapels and martyr columns, redirecting the masonry toward school construction.[39] Strict bans were placed on labor strikes and concerted work stoppages, treating them as state crimes punishable by up to six months' imprisonment or corporal punishment.[40] Immediately after his accession, Maximilian declared that newspapers could be published only with his permission.[41] On 14 March 1800, a notice stated that printed works could appear only with an imprimatur on the title page.[42] On 17 February 1806, the Royal Bavarian Government Gazette laid down that no political or statistical periodical could be published without royal permission..[41][42][43] In 1809, special summary courts were established with authority to carry out capital executions within three hours.[44]

Napoleonic alliance and creation of the kingdom

Bavaria entered the War of the Second Coalition allied with Austria under external compulsion. After the Bavarian army suffered defeat alongside Austria at the Battle of Hohenlinden in December 1800, Maximilian fled to Bayreuth.[45] In a separate peace with France in 1801, Maximilian gave up his hereditary lands west of the Rhine and received a promise of compensation..[5][6] In compensation, the Principal Imperial Deputation Recess (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss) of 1803 awarded Bavaria extensive ecclesiastical and secular domains, including the former Prince-Bishoprics of Würzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg, and Freising, as well as multiple Imperial free cities.[5]

Faced with persistent Austrian territorial ambitions, Maximilian aligned his foreign policy with France. On 25 August 1805, Montgelas signed a secret alliance with France at his Bogenhausen estate, predated to 24 August.[46]

Under the Treaty of Pressburg, concluded on 26 December 1805, Bavaria received the territories of Tyrol and Vorarlberg from Austria, along with additions in Franconia and Swabia, while ceding Würzburg.[1][27] Maximilian assumed the royal title as King Maximilian I Joseph in Munich on 1 January 1806.[1][27][47] To cement the alliance, his eldest daughter, Princess Augusta, was married on 13 January 1806 to Napoleon's stepson, Eugène de Beauharnais, Viceroy of Italy.[27][48] In March 1806, Maximilian ceded the right-bank Duchy of Berg to Napoleon's brother-in-law Joachim Murat in exchange for the Principality of Ansbach.[1][49] As King of Bavaria, Maximilian was the most important of the princes belonging to the Confederation of the Rhine..[1][50][51]

Reforms and administration as king

As King of Bavaria, Maximilian continued state modernization alongside Montgelas. In 1808, Maximilian granted the Kingdom of Bavaria its first constitution, which dismantled corporate estate privileges and established civic equality.[52][53][54] Under Section 4 of the Organic Edict of 31 August 1808, serfdom was abolished throughout Bavaria, transferring peasants into the status of free citizens subject to the rule of law.[52][53] The constitution declared all members of the royal family subject to the monarch's jurisdiction, while high treason was punished by public exposure in a red shirt at the pillory followed by decapitation and compulsory alteration of the offender's family name.[55]

The administration organized the realm into fifteen circles, consolidated into eight in 1810.[56] Hereditary and vendible offices were abolished by the service pragmatic decree of 1805.[56] Internal tolls were removed in 1807, guild privileges were eased, and uniform standards of measures, weights, and coinage were implemented.[56] The Munich Regulation of 1805 and the Judenedikt of 1813 granted Bavarian citizenship rights to native Jewish residents while imposing restrictions regarding professional pursuits, marriage quotas, and immigration through municipal registries (Matrikel).[57] The Bavarian Gendarmerie was created in 1812.[58] Under a penal code drafted by Paul Johann Anselm von Feuerbach, judicial torture, prohibited provisionally by royal rescript in 1806, was legally abolished in 1813.[58][59]

The Russian campaign and Coalition War

Bavaria supplied a major contingence to Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. Over 30,000 Bavarian soldiers initially marched into Russia, supplemented by an additional 8,000 men dispatched in October 1812.[60][61][62] In July 1812, General von Deroy warned the king by letter of severe logistics failures, with troops marching barefoot in tatters, discipline breaking down, and extensive desertions occurring.[63][64] Soldiers endured extreme temperatures, contaminated water filtered through handkerchiefs, and acute dysentery.[64] Deroy was killed in action in Russia in 1812; the king did not attend his formal memorial service in Munich, having left for Lindau to inspect port facilities that had been completed weeks earlier.[65][66] The retreat destroyed the Bavarian forces, and only 2,297 men returned home.[60][67] Maximilian addressed the population by describing the losses as unfortunate occurrences and praised the nation's loyalty while rapidly conscripting a replacement army.[68][69]

Recruitment fell heavily on the poorer segments of society, including landless laborers, tenants, and younger sons without inheritance rights, while nobility, clergy, officials, professionals, merchants, and guild masters enjoyed extensive exemptions.[70][71] Conscription dodgers, termed dissenters (Widerspenstige), faced forfeiture of property, severe fines, extension of military terms, and marriage bans.[72][73]

As Allied forces advanced toward northern Bavaria in 1813, Maximilian, strongly influenced by Crown Prince Ludwig and Marshal von Wrede, decided to abandon the French alliance.[1][5][74] On 8 October 1813, ten days before the Battle of Leipzig, Bavaria signed the secret Treaty of Ried with Austria, securing guarantees for its territorial integrity and sovereignty in exchange for joining the Sixth Coalition.[1][50] On 14 October 1813, Bavaria formally declared war against Napoleonic France.[1][5]

Congress of Vienna and later reign

Following Napoleon's fall, Maximilian attended the Congress of Vienna in person.[1][75] By the Treaty of Paris of 3 June 1814 and the Treaty of Munich in 1816, Bavaria ceded Tyrol and Vorarlberg back to Austria, as well as the Duchy of Salzburg, the Innviertel, and parts of the Hausruckviertel.[76] In return, Bavaria acquired the Grand Duchy of Würzburg, the Principality of Aschaffenburg, and a reconfigured left-bank territory known as the Rheinkreis (Rhenish Palatinate).[77] Maximilian fought to maintain the contiguity of the Bavarian territories as guaranteed at Ried, but the most he could obtain was an assurance from Metternich in the matter of the Baden succession, in which he was also disappointed..[1][75][78][79][80]

At the Congress of Vienna, Maximilian strongly opposed the formation of a centralized German state, insisting upon preserving full territorial sovereignty for regional monarchs.[1][5] This advocacy contributed significantly to the decentralized structure of the newly formed German Confederation.[1][5] In Bavaria, the Federal Act of 8 June 1815 was promulgated not as domestic statute, but as an international treaty.[1][5]

In January 1817, Crown Prince Ludwig, who opposed Montgelas's policies, orchestrated the minister's dismissal.[5][81][82] On 24 October 1817, Maximilian concluded a concordat with the Holy See, reestablishing clerical jurisdiction and forming the ecclesiastical provinces of Munich-Freising and Bamberg.[1][7][81] On 26 May 1818, the king granted the Constitution of 1818, which established a constitutional monarchy featuring a bicameral legislature consisting of a Chamber of Councilors (Reichsräte) and a Chamber of Deputies (Abgeordneten).[1][83] On 17 May 1818, he issued the Second Municipal Edict, granting elected local representative councils and expanded self-government to Bavarian communes.[83]

When the new parliament asserted greater political independence than anticipated, Maximilian grew wary of its influence.[1][5] Nevertheless, his local particularism and popular standing led him to resist strict application of the repressive Carlsbad Decrees of 1819 within Bavaria.[1][5] Maximilian frequently examined dossiers of suspects investigated by the central Mainz Commission personally, often dismissing charges and providing financial gifts to the accused.[1][27]

Cultural patronage and urban development

Maximilian played an active role in transforming Munich into a classical royal capital. He commissioned architects Karl von Fischer, Friedrich Ludwig von Sckell, and later Gustav Vorherr and Emanuel Joseph von Hérigoyen to design Munich's first systematic urban expansion, constructing the Maxvorstadt and laying out the Brienner Straße as a central monumental avenue.[2] Karl von Fischer, who carried out Maximilian's plan for expanding Munich, designed the new National Theatre among other buildings..[2] He opened the English Garden, the Court Garden, the old botanical gardens, and the royal library and art collections to the public.[2] On 12 October 1810, the wedding festivities of Crown Prince Ludwig and Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen initiated the annual Oktoberfest celebrations, which were repeated as a recurring public festival starting in 1811.[2]

In 1808, Maximilian established the Academy of Fine Arts Munich.[84] He collected paintings and owned one of only 37 surviving paintings by Jan Vermeer, Woman with a Balance, which his heirs sold in 1826, before his successor Ludwig I had the Alte Pinakothek built..[85] He also possessed David Wilkie's genre piece The Reading of a Will in his Tegernsee summer residence.[85] Maximilian viewed Crown Prince Ludwig's heavy spending on classical antiquities with skepticism, noting in private correspondence that his son was wasting funds on old rubble to turn beer-drinkers into Greeks and Romans.[86][87]

In 1801, Maximilian personally directed the rescue operation when the workshop of a Munich glassmaker collapsed, saving 14-year-old apprentice Joseph von Fraunhofer.[88] He provided Fraunhofer with educational books, subsidized his studies, and required his master to permit study time.[88] Fraunhofer subsequently developed spectroscopy, invented precision optical equipment, made Bavaria a major center for fine optics, and received knighthood before his death at age 39.[88] In 1802, Maximilian was elected a Royal Fellow of the Royal Society of London.[89][90][91]

Marriages and issue

Maximilian was known for his informal and approachable demeanor among the citizens of Munich, often walking the city streets with minimal accompaniment and conversing freely with residents.[1][92] His popularity led his subjects to refer to him affectionately as 'good Father Max' (der gute Vater Max).[93]

Maximilian married twice. On 30 September 1785 in Darmstadt, he married Princess Augusta Wilhelmine of Hesse-Darmstadt (1765–1796), daughter of Landgrave George William of Hesse-Darmstadt.[1] She died of tuberculosis in 1796..[2][94] They had five children: Crown Prince Ludwig (1786–1868), who succeeded as King Ludwig I and was baptized with Louis XVI of France as his godfather; Princess Augusta Amalia (1788–1851), who married Eugène de Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg; Princess Amalie Marie Auguste (1790–1794), who died in childhood; Princess Caroline Augusta (1792–1873), who married first Crown Prince William of Württemberg and secondly Emperor Francis I of Austria; and Prince Karl Theodor (1795–1875), who contracted two morganatic marriages.[1][2][95]

On 9 March 1797 in Karlsruhe, Maximilian married Princess Karoline of Baden (1776–1841), daughter of Margrave Charles Louis of Baden.[1] They had eight children, including two pairs of twin daughters: a stillborn son (5 September 1799); Prince Maximilian Joseph Karl Friedrich (1800–1803), who died in infancy; Princess Elisabeth Ludovika (1801–1873), twin sister of Amalie, who married King Frederick William IV of Prussia; Princess Amalie Auguste (1801–1877), twin sister of Elisabeth, who married King John I of Saxony; Princess Marie Anne (1805–1877), twin sister of Sophie, who married King Frederick Augustus II of Saxony; Princess Sophie (1805–1872), twin sister of Marie Anne, who married Archduke Franz Karl of Austria and became mother of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico; Princess Ludovika (1808–1892), who married Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria and became mother of the Empress of Austria ('Sisi'); and Princess Maximiliana Josepha Karoline (1810–1821), who died in childhood.[1][2]

Death and succession

During the summer of 1825, Maximilian's physical health declined visibly.[96] On the evening of 12 October 1825, he attended a ball held in his honor for his name day by the Russian ambassador at the Palais Woronzow in Munich.[96][97] On the morning of 13 October 1825, he was found dead in his bedchamber at Nymphenburg Palace, having suffered a sudden stroke at the age of 69.[96][97] Maximilian was interred in the crypt of the Theatine Church in Munich, while his heart was interred separately in the Shrine of Our Lady of Altötting (Gnadenkapelle).[98] He was succeeded without opposition by his eldest son, Ludwig I.[1] In 1835, a bronze monument designed by Christian Daniel Rauch and cast by Johann Baptist Stiglmaier was unveiled on Max-Joseph-Platz before the National Theatre, having been delayed during Maximilian's lifetime because he refused to be portrayed seated.

Where editions disagree (3)
Birthplace
  • English: Schwetzingen, between Heidelberg and Mannheim
  • German: Mannheim
  • French: Schwetzingen, near Mannheim
  • Norwegian: Mannheim
  • Croatian: Mannheim
Duration of reign as Duke of Zweibrücken
  • English: 1795 to 1799 (infobox gives 1795 to 1806)
  • German: 1795 to 1797
  • Italian: 1795 to 1797
  • Dutch: 1795 to 1803
  • Danish: 1795 to 1801
  • Azerbaijani: 1795 to 1825
Religion
  • English: Roman Catholicism
  • Hungarian: Lutheranism
  • Italian: Roman Catholicism
Sources (52 Wikipedia editions)

The non-English editions provide substantial additional historical and administrative detail not present in the English article. The German edition documents Maximilian's extensive domestic measures, including the restructuring and repayment of his 3.6-million-florin personal debt, the cancellation of religious holidays in 1801 and the ensuing 1802 journeymen's rebellion, strict press regulations and special summary tribunals, the social profile and severe penalties surrounding military conscription, and the catastrophic troop conditions during the 1812 Russian campaign. French and German editions also cover his youth in Alsace, the early administration of the County of Rappoltstein, the 1797 House Treaty of Ansbach, and the separate burial of his heart at Altötting.

Assembled from the Wikipedia articles below, each pinned to the revision read on 2026-09-27. Together they hold 292 references; the English article alone has 4.

EditionArticleRevisionSizeRefs
EnglishMaximilian I Joseph of Bavaria136288203322.9 KB4
GermanMaximilian I. Joseph27035705591.4 KB134
VietnameseMaximilian I Joseph của Bayern7542036536.2 KB10
ItalianMassimiliano I Giuseppe di Baviera15209502932.4 KB29
FrenchMaximilien Ier (roi de Bavière)23980146632.0 KB11
GreekΜαξιμιλιανός Α΄ Ιωσήφ της Βαυαρίας1174345224.3 KB13
BulgarianМаксимилиан I Йозеф (Бавария)1179382820.4 KB1
RussianМаксимилиан I (король Баварии)15467867418.5 KB10
SpanishMaximiliano I de Baviera17287057917.9 KB12
Japaneseマクシミリアン1世 (バイエルン王)11063719317.8 KB0
HungarianI. Miksa bajor király2876123015.5 KB0
PolishMaksymilian I Józef Wittelsbach7987817213.7 KB12
Hebrewמקסימיליאן הראשון יוזף, מלך בוואריה4120098913.0 KB0
PortugueseMaximiliano I José da Baviera6860111512.5 KB2
FinnishMaksimilian I Joosef2345546012.3 KB32
CzechMaxmilián I. Josef Bavorský2552711011.5 KB0
Georgianმაქსიმილიან I (ბავარია)551351411.5 KB0
Thaiพระเจ้ามัคซีมีลีอานที่ 1 โยเซ็ฟ แห่งบาวาเรีย1329460810.9 KB0
UkrainianМаксиміліан I (король Баварії)4623694710.0 KB0
AzerbaijaniI Maksimilian (Bavariya kralı)91138729.8 KB4
SlovakMaximilián I. Jozef82281869.7 KB0
Korean막시밀리안 1세 요제프391254939.4 KB0
Chinese马克西米利安一世 (巴伐利亚国王)919731509.3 KB0
BelarusianМаксіміліян I Іосіф Вітэльсбах50697827.9 KB0
CatalanMaximilià I Josep de Baviera386089297.0 KB3
DutchMaximiliaan I Jozef van Beieren716360526.8 KB0
DanishMaximilian 1. Joseph af Bayern119438966.4 KB2
RomanianMaximilian I Iosif de Bavaria155506705.7 KB0
ScotsMaximilian I Joseph o Bavarie8163775.7 KB0
SerbianМаксимилијан I Јозеф од Баварске314456445.3 KB1
SwedishMaximilian I Josef av Bayern578219535.1 KB0
NorwegianMaximilian I av Bayern225463615.1 KB0
Persianماکسیمیلیان یکم یوزف443151144.7 KB0
Arabicمكسيمليان الأول يوزف723056994.3 KB3
AragoneseMaximiliano I de Bavera22606274.1 KB0
BavarianMaximilian I. Joseph8074343.9 KB0
MacedonianМаксимилијан I Јосиф од Баварија54199583.9 KB0
BretonMasimilian Iañ Jozeb19552283.7 KB0
IndonesianMaximilian I Joseph267086873.7 KB0
ArmenianՄաքսիմիլիան I Յոզեֆ Բավարացի100665303.7 KB0
EstonianMaximilian I Joseph63321473.6 KB0
LatvianMaksimiliāns I Jozefs38179173.0 KB0
TurkishMaximilian I. Joseph (Bavyera kralı)380049682.9 KB0
CroatianMaksimilijan I. Josip Bavarski65449812.9 KB3
simpleMaximilian I Joseph101820412.4 KB4
LatgalianMaksimiļians I, Bavārejis Karaļs348312.3 KB1
azbماکسیمیلیان یوزف6542312.2 KB0
EsperantoMaksimiliano la 1-a Jozefo (Bavario)91350722.0 KB0
BasqueMaximiliano I.a Josef Bavariakoa103098291.8 KB0
LatinMaximilianus I Iosephus (rex Bavariae)38066161.3 KB1
Egyptian Arabicماكسيمليان الاول يوزف114161831.1 KB0
Wu Chinese马克西米利安一世（巴伐利亚国王）3609290.5 KB0
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References

  1. Chisholm 1911, p. 291. (Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Maximilian I., king of Bavaria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 921.)
  2. Maximilian I. (als König von Bayern) Deutsche Biographie. 2024. Viitattu 1.9.2024. (saksaksi)
  3. Mitgliedseintrag von Maximilian Joseph Pfalzgraf von Zweibrücken, später König Maximilian I. Joseph von Bayern bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, abgerufen am 3. Februar 2016.
  4. « Maximilien-Joseph de Deux-Ponts », dans Édouard Sitzmann, Dictionnaire de biographie des hommes célèbres de l'Alsace : depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours, t. 2 : K-Z, Rixheim, F. Sutter & Cie, 1910, 1105 p. (lire en ligne), p. 264
  5. Maximilian I | Biography & Facts Encyclopædia Britannica. 9.10.2024. Viitattu 17.11.2024. (englanniksi)
  6. Maximilian (s. 1321–1322) Nordisk familjebok. 1912. Viitattu 17.11.2024. (ruotsiksi)
  7. Chisholm 1911, p. 291.
  8. Palmer 1972, pp. 10 (Palmer, Alan (1972). Metternich: Councillor of Europe (1997 reprint ed.). London: Orion. ISBN 978-1-85799-868-9.)
  9. Palmer 1972 , págs. 10
  10. Alfons Maria Scheglmann: Geschichte der Säkularisation. Regensburg 1903, S. 143.
  11. Scheglmann, Alfons Maria, Geschichte der Säkularisation, Regensburg 1903, S. 143
  12. Eberhard Weis: Montgelas’ innenpolitisches Reformprogramm. Das Ansbacher Mémoire für den Herzog vom 30. 9. 1796. In: Zeitschrift für Bayerische Landesgeschichte. Band 33, 1970, S. 219–256 (Digitalisat; mit Transkription des Mémoire); siehe auch deutsche Übersetzung auf der Website des Hauses der Bayerischen Geschichte.
  13. Max Spindler: Handbuch der bayerischen Geschichte. Verlag C.H.Beck, München 1988, ISBN 3-406-32320-0, S. 1233 f.
  14. Münchner Intelligenzblatt vom 23. Februar 1799, S. 133–136.
  15. Sylvia Krauss-Meyl: Das ‚Enfant Terrible‘ des Königshauses, Maria Leopoldine, Bayerns letzte Kurfürstin, Regensburg, 1. Auflage, 2013, S. 50.
  16. Sylvia Krauss-Meyl: Das ‚Enfant Terrible‘ des Königshauses, Maria Leopoldine, Bayerns letzte Kurfürstin, Regensburg, 3., überarbeitete Auflage, 2013, S. 71 ff.
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  20. Churpfalzbaierisches Regierungsblatt, 1805, S. 201–212.
  21. Frage: Hatte es Vorwürfe gegeben?
  22. 1.) Die Protokolle des Bayerischen Staatsrats 1799 bis 1817, herausgegeben von der Historischen Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften durch Eberhard Weis und von der Generaldirektion der Staatlichen Archive Bayerns durch Hermann Rumschöttel, Bd. 1, München 2006, S. 293, 297, 301 f., 307, 312 ff., 323, 330, 345, 364, 371 ff., 409, 428, s. auch Bd. 2, München 2008!
  23. Churpfalzbaierisches Regierungsblatt 1802, Steuermandat vom 4. November 1801, S. 20–24, 49–51; S. 225–229; S. 281 f.
  24. A.)Chur-Pfalz-Baierisches Regierungs- und Intelligenzblatt 20. Dezember 1800, S. 291–304, 1823 neu aufgelegt von Strobel, Johann Baptist. B.) Oberpfälzisches Wochenblatt, 5. Dezember 1806: „bestimmen wir bey dem Bauernstande eine ganze Landsteuer…. ¼ pro Cent vom Grundvermögen….. Für die Grafschaft Cham eine ganze Landsteuer.“ C.) Anm.: Auf heutige Vermögensverhältnisse übertragen ergeben sich gewaltige Zusatzabgaben.
  25. Königlich-Baierisches Regierungsblatt 1806, S. 417 f.
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