SuperCharged WikiAll of Wikipedia's languages, in one article

Ögedei Khan

Enhanced
From SuperCharged Wiki, written from every language edition of Wikipedia
Contents
  1. (Top)
  2. Names, Titles, and Etymology
  3. Early Life and Rise under Genghis Khan
    1. Battle of the Khalakhaljid Sands
    2. Marriage and Appanage Allotment
    3. Early Campaigns against the Jin Dynasty
    4. The Khwarazmian Campaign
  4. Selection as Heir and Accession
  5. Conquest of the Jin Dynasty
  6. Conflict with the Southern Song Dynasty
  7. Middle Eastern and Transcaucasian Campaigns
  8. Invasions of Goryeo Korea
  9. The Great Western Campaign and Invasion of Europe
  10. Campaigns in India, Kashmir, and Tibet
  11. State Building and Imperial Administration
  12. Construction of Karakorum
  13. Character, Personal Life, and Controversies
  14. Final Illness, Death, and Succession
  15. Consorts and Issue
  16. References
Ögedei Khan
Ögedei Khan
Reign13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241
Coronation13 September 1229 at Khödöö Aral on the Kherlen River
PredecessorGenghis Khan (Tolui as regent)
SuccessorGüyük Khan (Töregene Khatun as regent)
Bornc. 1186
Died11 December 1241
ConsortsBoraqchin Khatun, Töregene Khatun, Möge Khatun, Jachin Khatun
HouseBorjigin

Ögedei Khan (c. 1186 – 11 December 1241) was the second Khagan of the Mongol Empire, reigning from 1229 until his death. The third son of Genghis Khan and Börte Ujin, he oversaw the empire's vast territorial expansion, completing the conquest of the Jin dynasty, subjugating Goryeo, absorbing Persia and Transcaucasia, and launching the Mongol invasion of Europe. He established the capital at Karakorum, formalized the Yam postal relay network, instituted standardized bureaucratic taxation, and promoted multi-religious governance across Eurasia. He was succeeded after an interregnum by his son Güyük.

Names, Titles, and Etymology

The name Ögedei appears in medieval sources in diverse transcriptions and phonetic renderings across Mongolian, Chinese, Persian, and European languages. In classical Mongolian script, it is written as Ögedei Qaγan, while in Phags-pa script it is rendered as Öködeï Qa'an.[1] In Persian historical chronicles, including Rashid al-Din's Compendium of Chronicles (Jami al-tawarikh), it is transcribed as Ūgtāy Qā'ān, and in the Mu'izz al-ansab as Ūkaday Khān.[1][2] Chinese historical records render his personal name using various Chinese characters, including Wokuotai (窩闊台 or 窩闊臺), Wogedai (斡歌歹), Hegedai (和歌台), Woguodai (倭闊岱), Egedeyi (諤格德衣), Yuegudai (月古歹), and Yuekuodai (月闊歹).[2][3] In Mongolian and French historiography, the name is translated as generous.[4][5] Regarding the etymology, scholar Béla Kempf proposed that the name derived from an earlier root associated with the Uyghurs (*oygur), shifting through phonetic developments from *oygur-DAi to *oygudai, then ögüdei, and finally ögödei.[6] Conversely, Igor de Rachewiltz argued that the authentic contemporary thirteenth- and fourteenth-century spelling was Ögödei or Öködei, considering Ögedei to be an erroneous later form.[7]

Ögedei is widely recognized as the first supreme ruler of the Mongol Empire to officially adopt the elevated imperial title of Qa'an (Khagan), distinguishing the supreme emperor from ordinary regional princes styled as khan.[8][9][10][11] During his lifetime, inscriptions on stele erected across northern China by Daoist Quanzhen institutions and Buddhist communities addressed him not merely by personal name, but with the title Hahan Huangdi (合罕皇帝, Khagan Emperor).[8][9] This contrasted with references to his father Genghis Khan, who was titled Chengjisike Huangdi, and his son Güyük, who was referred to as Guyou Huangdi.[9] In a surviving official Persian letter sent by Güyük Khan to Pope Innocent IV in November 1246, preserved in the Vatican archives, Güyük refers to his grandfather Genghis and himself as khan, while reserving the title Qa'an specifically for Ögedei.[9] Ata-Malik Juvayni's Tarikh-i Jahangushay and Rashid al-Din's Jami al-tawarikh observe this same distinction.[9] Upon his accession in 1229, the Mongol aristocracy and ministers bestowed upon Ögedei the Mongolian honorific title Muiken Gehan (木亦堅合罕).[12] In October 1266, when his nephew Kublai Khan established the imperial ancestral temple in Daidu, he posthumously conferred upon Ögedei the Chinese temple name Taizong (太宗) and the posthumous name Emperor Yingwen (英文皇帝).[2][13]

Early Life and Rise under Genghis Khan

Ögedei was the third son born to Temüjin (Genghis Khan) and his principal wife Börte Ujin of the Onggirat tribe, born in the steppes of Khamag Mongol.[2][14] He had two older brothers, Jochi and Chagatai, and one younger brother, Tolui, as well as several sisters. Growing up amid the internecine warfare of the steppe clans, Ögedei was raised from early childhood to master horsemanship, archery, and the nomadic arts of war.[15] Because Jochi had been born shortly after Börte was rescued from captivity among the Merkits, Chagatai persistently contested Jochi's legitimacy, creating enduring friction between the two elder brothers.[16] Ögedei, whose biological legitimacy as Temüjin's son was never questioned, consistently avoided taking sides in their quarrels, frequently serving as an amicable mediator between them. Early on, Temüjin noted Ögedei's steady, genial character, practical intellect, and charisma, viewing him as his favorite son.[17]

Battle of the Khalakhaljid Sands

When Ögedei was seventeen years old, in 1203, Temüjin suffered a major tactical defeat at the Battle of the Khalakhaljid Sands against the rival coalition led by Jamukha and the Kereites under Toghrul (Ong Khan).[14][18][19] During the confused, desperate melee in the desert sands, Mongol general Quyildar of the Mangghut clan was badly wounded, while the Kereite heir Ilqa Senggüm was struck in the cheek by an arrow, causing both armies to withdraw at nightfall.[18] When the Mongol forces regrouped at the wetlands of Dalan Nemürges along the Ulqwi and Shilgeljit rivers, several key leaders were missing, including Jochi Khasar, Bo'orchu, Borokhula, and the young Ögedei.[19][20] Bo'orchu eventually returned safely, followed shortly by Borokhula, who had discovered Ögedei abandoned on the battlefield.[14][19]

Ögedei had sustained a life-threatening wound from an arrow that had severed his carotid neck artery and left him collapsed on the field.[14][19] Borokhula rescued the youth by repeatedly using his mouth to suck clotted blood from the wound as he carried him back on horseback.[19] Upon seeing his son alive, Temüjin broke into tears and immediately attended to the wound, cauterizing the flesh with heated metal to stop the hemorrhaging.[19] Temüjin repeatedly comforted Ögedei, inquiring whether he needed drink and reassuring him that they remained ready to fight any enemy that approached.[19] Borokhula reported that the Kereite army had retreated into the distance, allowing the Mongol force to rest and reorganize.[19][20]

Marriage and Appanage Allotment

In 1204, Temüjin campaigned against and crushed the Merkit tribe.[21] Following the defeat of the Merkit leaders, Temüjin captured Töregene, the wife of Dayir Usun (or Qudu, the eldest son of Tokhtoa Beki).[14][21] Recognizing Töregene's exceptional intelligence, Temüjin gave her to Ögedei to be his second wife, despite Ögedei already being married to his principal wife Boraqchin.[14][21] The practice of acquiring wives from defeated steppe chieftains was an established nomadic tradition.[14] Töregene went on to exert influence over the political life of the empire and bore Ögedei five sons, including his eventual imperial successor Güyük.[22][23]

In the spring of 1206, Temüjin convened a great kurultai near the source of the Onon River near Burkhan Khaldun, where the nine-tailed white standard was hoisted and he was proclaimed Genghis Khan of the Yeke Monggol Ulus.[24][25] Genghis divided the people into myangans (thousands) and distributed appanages to his mother, brothers, and sons.[26] While his mother Hoelun and youngest brother Temüge Otchigin received 10,000 subjects, Jochi received 9,000, Chagatai received 8,000, and Ögedei and Tolui received 5,000 subjects each.[26] Ögedei's appanage comprised thousands from the Jalayir, Besud, Suldus, and Khongqatan clans, and his territorial domain was centered in western Mongolia and northern Xinjiang along the valleys of the Emil and Hobok rivers, extending into the Tarbagatai mountains. At his father's instruction, Ilugei, a senior commander of the Jalayir clan, was appointed as Ögedei's personal tutor and governor. Genghis Khan also assigned his Khitan aide Yelü Chucai to assist Ögedei, and Yelü Chucai taught him about Chinese history and culture.

Early Campaigns against the Jin Dynasty

Ögedei gained his initial experience as an independent field commander in November 1211 during the opening stages of the Mongol invasion of the Jurchen Jin dynasty.[27][28] Genghis Khan organized his army into precise decimal units of tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten-thousands (tümen), placing his sons in charge of major columns.[28] Ögedei, Jochi, and Chagatai led the Right Wing army, which penetrated through the Great Wall into northern Shanxi, successfully overrunning six key frontier prefectures: Yunnei, Dongshengzhou, Wuzhou, Shuozhou, Fengzhou, and Ningzhou.[29]

In 1213, after Jin Emperor Xuanzong rejected Mongol diplomatic demands for a tribute of 500 boys and 500 maidens, Genghis Khan launched a massive three-pronged offensive across northern China.[30] Ögedei marched with his brothers through Hebei and then pivoted north through central Shanxi, capturing key urban centers including Taiyuan and Pingyang before driving the Jin garrison completely out of the Ordos region.[27] Ögedei advanced his cavalry to the tri-border region where the frontiers of the Western Xia, Jin, and Southern Song empires converged.[27]

The Khwarazmian Campaign

In the autumn of 1219, Genghis Khan marched into Central Asia to destroy the Khwarazmian Empire, dividing his forces into four distinct armies near Otrar.[31][32] The first army, commanded jointly by Chagatai and Ögedei, was assigned to capture Otrar, whose governor Inalchuq (Ghayir Khan) had previously slaughtered a Mongol trade caravan.[32] The city was defended by a garrison of local troops and a reinforcement of 10,000 soldiers under Qaraja Khan.[32] After enduring a five-month siege, Qaraja Khan attempted to defect secretly at night, but was captured and executed by the Mongols for his disloyalty.[32][33] Inalchuq retreated into the inner citadel, holding out for another month before being taken alive.[33] By order of Genghis Khan, Inalchuq was executed by having molten silver poured into his eyes and ears as retribution for the plundered merchants.[33] The citadel of Otrar was razed to the ground, its civilian population was massacred or enslaved, and surviving craftsmen were deported to Karakorum.[33][34]

In 1220, Genghis Khan sent the armies of Jochi, Chagatai and Ögedei, which killed the Khwarazmian princes Uzlaq Shah and Aq Shah.[35] Chagatai and Ögedei then joined their elder brother Jochi outside the walls of the Khwarazmian capital, Gurganj (Urgench).[34] Their bitter strategic disagreements stalled the siege for six months.[36][37] Receiving reports of this infighting while besieging Taleqan, Genghis Khan stripped both elder brothers of operational control and appointed Ögedei as supreme commander of the siege.[36][38] Ögedei restored order and discipline, reconciled Jochi and Chagatai, and ordered a coordinated general assault in April 1221.[36][38][39] Gurganj was captured, its population slaughtered or driven out, and the dams on the Amu Darya river were demolished, submerging the remaining structures.[34][39]

Following the fall of Urgench, Ögedei rejoined his father at Taleqan and accompanied the imperial army across the Hindu Kush.[40] In the spring of 1222, Genghis Khan dispatched Ögedei to destroy Ghazni, which served as the operational supply base for the fugitive Khwarazmshah prince Jalal al-Din Mangburni.[41][42] Ögedei summoned the inhabitants outside the walls under the guise of conducting a demographic census, separated skilled artisans and craftsmen to be sent to Mongolia, and massacred the remaining populace, reducing the city to ruins.[41][42] Ögedei requested permission to march further south to lay siege to Sistan, but Genghis Khan ordered him to withdraw due to the extreme summer heat.[43] In 1224, Ögedei handed over his active field command to Chagatai and spent the spring hunting with his father along the Syr Darya river.

Selection as Heir and Accession

The formal nomination of Ögedei as imperial successor took place prior to the Khwarazmian campaign in 1219, prompted by Empress Yisui, who urged Genghis Khan to designate an heir before departing on so hazardous an expedition.[44] When Genghis Khan raised the question of succession, Chagatai vehemently objected to Jochi, denouncing him as the bastard child of Merkit captives and asserting his own right to rule.[16] The two elder brothers engaged in a violent physical brawl in the imperial tent before being separated by the generals.[45] After the brawl, Genghis Khan designated the calm, even-tempered third son, Ögedei, as heir with the agreement of his elder brothers.[44][46] Genghis Khan formally confirmed Ögedei as his successor, instructing that Jochi and Chagatai receive distant appanages to avert future conflicts.[44][45]

During the final campaign against Western Xia in early 1226, Ögedei and Tolui accompanied their father in capturing Black Water City (Khara-Khoto), Ganzhou, and Suzhou.[47] In March 1226, while encamped at Ongon Talan Kutuk, Genghis Khan experienced a premonition of his impending death and summoned Ögedei and Tolui to his bedside.[48][49] He reminded them to remain firmly unified, confirmed Ögedei as his rightful successor, and warned them not to allow Chagatai to disrupt the imperial succession.[49] Genghis Khan died in August 1227 during the siege of the Tangut capital.[46][50] Under the steppe custom of ultimogeniture (otchigin), his youngest son Tolui inherited the ancestral Mongol heartland and 101,000 soldiers out of the 129,000-man imperial army, while Ögedei, Jochi, Chagatai, and Kölgen received 4,000 men each.[48][51] Tolui served as regent for two years, managing the central imperial affairs from 1227 until the formal electoral assembly could be convened.[46][52]

In the spring of 1229, the imperial family and military aristocracy gathered at Khödöö Aral on the Kherlen River for the great kurultai.[52] Ögedei arrived from his appanage along the Emil River.[52] Although many Mongol traditionalist nobles and commanders favored electing Tolui because of his military brilliance and command of the core armies, chief minister Yelü Chucai strongly urged the assembly to uphold Genghis Khan's testamentary decree.[52][53] Tolui himself declined the throne out of reverence for his father's explicit instructions.[53] Nonetheless, Ögedei maintained customary modesty, declining the imperial nomination three times over a forty-day period, insisting that his elder brother Chagatai, his uncle Temüge Otchigin, or the regent Tolui were more deserving.[46][53][54] On the forty-first day, 13 September 1229, Ögedei accepted the crown; Chagatai took his right hand and Temüge Otchigin took his left hand as Ögedei was enthroned as the second Khagan of the Mongol Empire.[12][46][53]

Conquest of the Jin Dynasty

At the 1229 kurultai, Ögedei resolved to complete his father's unfinished work by eradicating the Jurchen Jin dynasty, whose territory had been reduced to Henan and southern Shanxi.[55] In late 1230, following an unexpected defeat suffered by Mongol general Doqolqu Cherbi, Ögedei and Tolui personally led an army southward into Shanxi.[56] They destroyed approximately sixty Jin fortresses and laid siege to Fengxiang府.[57] When the Jin court offered peace terms, Ögedei demanded unconditional surrender; the siege continued until May 1231, when famine forced Fengxiang to capitulate.[57]

The Jin forces strongly fortified the mountain pass of Tongguan, where the Yellow River bends, making a frontal assault into Henan from the north almost impossible.[58][59] A surrendered Jin official named Li Guochang proposed circumventing Tongguan by marching an army through the southern territory of the Southern Song empire.[60] Because this strategy aligned precisely with a dying plan left by Genghis Khan, Ögedei adopted it and assigned its execution to Tolui.[60] When Ögedei dispatched envoys to the Southern Song court to request passage, the Song officials murdered the Mongol ambassadors.[60] Undeterred, Tolui led an army of 30,000 elite horsemen directly through southern Shaanxi and northern Sichuan, pillaging Song territory, seizing 140 fortresses, and crossing the Han River into the Jin rear in December 1231.[59][61] In early 1232, Tolui's cavalry trapped and annihilated the main Jin field army of 150,000 men in a blinding blizzard at the Battle of Sanfengshan, capturing and executing prominent Jurchen commanders Wanyan Heda and Wanyan Chenheshang.[62]

Simultaneously, Ögedei took the fortress of Hezhong in southern Shanxi in January 1232, crossed the frozen Yellow River at Baipo, and linked up with Tolui's victorious army at Junzhou.[63][64] Leaving general Subutai to conduct the siege of the Jin southern capital, Kaifeng (Bianjing), Ögedei and Tolui departed for the northern steppe in the spring of 1232.[56][65][66] During the nearly year-long siege of Kaifeng, the defending Jurchen garrison utilized advanced gunpowder weaponry, launching explosive iron-cased bombs called thunderclap bombs (zhentianlei) and flame-throwing lances (feihuoxiang) that caused heavy casualties.[67][68] Refugees crowding into Kaifeng swelled its population, and after an epidemic broke out there in the summer of 1232, more than 900,000 people died. In February 1233, Jin Emperor Aizong fled south to Guide and subsequently took refuge in Caizhou.[69]

In March 1233, Jin general Cui Li staged a military coup inside Kaifeng, murdered the remaining loyalist commanders, seized control of the city, and surrendered to Subutai.[70][71] Embittered by the protracted defense and heavy Mongol casualties, Subutai petitioned Ögedei for permission to massacre the entire civilian population and loot the city.[70] Middle Minister Yelü Chucai intervened forcefully with Ögedei, arguing that conquering land without living people was economically pointless, and that Kaifeng housed the empire's finest artisans, wealthiest merchant families, and taxation base.[70] Convinced by Yelü Chucai's reasoning, Ögedei ordered that only members of the Jin imperial house be executed, while the rest of the 1.47 million inhabitants were spared.[70] Cui Li delivered more than five hundred men and women of the Jin imperial clan to Subutai, who sent them to Ögedei's camp in the northern steppe, where Ögedei had them all executed to avenge his ancestor Ambaghai Khan, whom Jin Emperor Xizong had nailed to a wooden donkey.

Emperor Aizong made his final stand at Caizhou, where he was surrounded in late 1233 by joint Mongol forces under general Taghachar and a Southern Song auxiliary force that provided 300,000 sacks of rice.[72][73] On 9 February 1234, as allied troops breached the walls, Emperor Aizong abdicated to his general Wanyan Chenglin (Emperor Modi) and committed suicide by hanging.[74][75] Modi was killed in the fighting. By another account, Modi and his followers surrendered to Taghachar, and the Jin dynasty, which had lasted 118 years, came to an end.[76] In addition to extinguishing Jin, Ögedei in 1233 crushed Eastern Xia, a second Jurchen state founded by Puxian Wannu, pacifying southern Manchuria; the campaign was led by Güyük, and the Eastern Xia army was routed and Puxian Wannu was killed. Ögedei also subdued the Water Tatars in the northern part of Manchuria and suppressed their rebellion in 1237..

Conflict with the Southern Song Dynasty

Under the terms of the Mongol-Song alliance against Jin, the Southern Song dynasty had been promised territorial concessions in southern Henan, specifically the border prefectures of Tang, Deng, Cai, Ying, Su, Si, Xu, and Pi.[77] However, following the fall of Caizhou in February 1234, the Mongol army relocated most local inhabitants north of the Yellow River due to severe wartime devastation and withdrew its main divisions across the river to rest. In the summer of 1234, Song Emperor Lizong, encouraged by hawkish court officials, initiated a unilateral military expedition known as Duanping Ruluo (端平入洛) to seize the historic northern capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang, and Guide.[56][78][79][80] Although Song troops easily occupied the empty cities, they carried inadequate provisions, and Mongol forces quickly counterattacked.[81] Opening the dikes of the Yellow River, the Mongols drowned much of the Song expeditionary army and drove the survivors back across the border.

At the grand kurultai held at Karakorum in early 1235, Ögedei formally condemned the Song breach of faith and declared a comprehensive invasion of southern China.[82][83] The campaign was structured into three advancing armies: a western column commanded by Ögedei's second son Köden and general Taghai Gampo attacking through Sichuan; a central column led by Ögedei's third son Köchü and general Temütei advancing into Huguang (modern Hubei) along the Han River; and an eastern force under Qun-Buqa and general Chaghan operating in Jiangnan.[83] In 1236, Köden's army captured Lizhou and Qingdao, overrunning much of Sichuan.[84] In the center, Köchü captured Zaoyang and besieged De'an, but died unexpectedly in camp in November 1236, severely disrupting the central offensive.[82][85] Song commander Meng Gong mounted a fierce defense, defeating Temütei at Jingzhou and repelling Mongol forces from Xiangyang and Huangzhou.[85][86] While Mongol raiding parties repeatedly penetrated as far as Chengdu and the Yangtze River between 1235 and 1245, dense riverine topography, unfamiliar climate, and stubborn Song fortifications prevented a total conquest, leaving both empires locked in border warfare.[82][86]

Middle Eastern and Transcaucasian Campaigns

After Genghis Khan had conquered the Khwarazmian empire, Jalal al-Din Mangburni, the last Khwarazmian king, returned to Persia in 1226 and revived the Khwarazmian empire..[87] Mongol forces sent against him were defeated at Dameghan in 1227.[87] A second Mongol attack near Isfahan won only a narrow victory, and the Mongols could not advance further.. Immediately after his coronation in 1229, Ögedei dispatched general Chormaqan Noyan at the head of a formidable army of 30,000 to 50,000 soldiers to eliminate Jalal al-Din permanently and pacify the Middle East.[55] Crossing the Amu Darya in 1230, Chormaqan swept through Khorasan without encountering resistance, establishing a secondary detachment under Dayir Baghatur to pacify western Afghanistan. In the autumn of 1230, Chormaqan skirted the southern Caspian shore through Tabaristan (Mazandaran), consciously avoiding the mountain fortresses held by the Nizari Ismailis (the Assassins).

Chormaqan set up his winter camp at Rayy and in 1231 captured the cities of Qom and Hamadan to gain control of northern Persia..[88] The rulers of Fars and Kerman quickly submitted to the Mongols.[88] Dayir Baghatur took Kabul, Ghazni and Zabulistan.. In 1231, Chormaqan defeated Jalal al-Din at Shirkebut on the Mugan plain; isolated and fleeing through the mountains of Diyarbakir, the last Khwarazmshah was killed by a Kurdish peasant in August 1231, bringing all of Persia under Mongol sovereignty.[89][90]

From 1232 onward, Chormaqan directed his armies toward Transcaucasia.[91] In 1235, Mongol forces used catapults and battering rams to breach the walls of Ganja, while the city of Erbil agreed to pay an annual tribute to Ögedei's court to avoid destruction.[91] In 1238, coordinated with operations by Möngke Khan in the northern Caucasus, Chormaqan captured Tiflis and took the fortress of Lori after its ruler Shahanshah fled.[91] Prince Hasan Jalal submitted after defending Hohanaberd, while Prince Avak surrendered at Gaian after Mongol commander Tokhta encircled the fortress with an earthen siege wall.[91] By 1240, Chormaqan had forced the entire Georgian and Armenian nobility into vassalage, completing the conquest of Transcaucasia.[91][92]

Invasions of Goryeo Korea

Mongol relations with the Korean kingdom of Goryeo soured after March 1225, when the Mongol envoy 저고여 (Zhuguyu) was mysteriously murdered along the Yalu River on his return journey, and around the same time Goryeo halted tribute payments.[93][94][95] In August 1231, Ögedei sent a punitive expedition commanded by general Saritai Qorchi to avenge the slain envoy and subjugate the kingdom.[93][95][96] Saritai advanced on Gaegyeong (Kaesong), compelling King Gojong to make a temporary submission and accept seventy-two resident Mongol supervisory officials (darughachi) stationed throughout Pyongan province.[93][95] However, in July 1232, the military dictator Ch'oe U ordered the court and government to relocate to Ganghwa Island off the western coast, after which the Goryeo garrison killed all seventy-two Mongol darughachi.[93][96] Saritai returned to the mainland with an army, but during the siege of Cheoin fortress in Yongin in December 1232, he was struck by a stray arrow fired by the Buddhist monk-militia commander Kim Yun-hu and died instantly, forcing the Mongols to withdraw.[93][95][96]

At the 1234 kurultai, Ögedei announced plans to conquer the Koreans, appointed Danqu commander of the Mongol army, and made the defected Korean general Bog Wong governor of forty cities.[97] In 1235 a large army under Tangutai was sent against Goryeo..[98][99] Between 1235 and 1238, Mongol forces swept across the Korean peninsula, ravaging Gaeju, Onsu, Jukju, and Daeheung.[99] The famous nine-story wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa temple was also destroyed during this campaign.[99] Incapable of challenging the Mongols on land, the Goryeo court entrenched on Ganghwa Island and commenced carving the eighty thousand woodblocks of the Tripitaka Koreana (Palman Daejanggyeong) to invoke the spiritual protection of the Buddha against the invaders.[99]

When Goryeo sued for peace in the winter of 1238, Ögedei demanded that King Gojong travel to Karakorum to offer personal submission.[97][99] Saying the king could not come to court, the Goryeo court sent the royal relative Sinan-gong Jeon to the Mongols in his place, calling him the king's brother..[99] In 1241, Goryeo sent the king's nephew Yeongnyeong-gong Jun, falsely presenting him as the crown prince, accompanied by ten aristocratic youths, eighteen diplomatic envoys, and rich tributes of gold, silver, silk, and horses.[97][99] Satisfied with these arrangements, Ögedei formally suspended the invasion of Korea in 1241, although Mongol forces later discovered the deception regarding Yeongnyeong-gong's identity.[97][99]

The Great Western Campaign and Invasion of Europe

At the 1235 kurultai in Karakorum, Ögedei mobilized a massive western expeditionary army of approximately 150,000 soldiers (fifteen tümen) under the supreme command of his nephew Batu Khan, the head of the Jochid Ulus, with the veteran general Subutai serving as primary strategic advisor.[100][101] To ensure complete imperial backing, Ögedei ordered senior princes from each branch of the imperial family to participate, including his own sons Güyük and Kadan, Tolui's eldest son Möngke, and Chagatai's grandson Büri.[101][102] In late 1236, the Mongol armies struck Volga Bulgaria, capturing and obliterating its capital Bilar, where governor Mir-Ghazi fell with 30,000 defenders, before crushing the Bashkirs and driving the Kipchak confederation across the steppes.[101]

In the winter of 1237, the Mongols invaded the principalities of Kievan Rus..[103][104][105] Ryazan was besieged and sacked on 21 December 1237 after a three-day assault, its entire population slaughtered.[103] During the siege of Kolomna, Ögedei's half-brother Kölgen was killed by an arrow..[106][107] The Mongols then destroyed the army of the Principality of Vladimir-Suzdal at the Battle of the Sit River..[103] The Mongols also captured Maghas, the capital of Alania, and by 1240 held all of Kievan Rus except a few northern cities.[103] In the winter of 1240 the western army took Kiev after a siege..[104][105]

In early 1241, the western army reached Hungary and advanced into parts of Hungary, Poland and the eastern lands of the Holy Roman Empire..[104][105][108] One army, led by Baidar, attacked Poland..[104][105] Attacking Poland from the north, the Mongols met an army of Poles, Moravians and soldiers of the Christian military orders at Legnica..[109] On 11 April 1241, another branch of the Mongol army, attacking Hungary, defeated an army of Hungarians, Croats and Templars at the Sajó River..[109] Mongol forces were about to advance toward Vienna and northern Albania when news of Ögedei's death arrived..[109]

Despite these military triumphs, severe political dissension arose within the Mongol leadership.[102][104][105] At a victory banquet along the Tisa River, Güyük and Büri openly insulted Batu's military competence, with Güyük mocking Batu as an old woman with a quiver.[104][105][110][111] When word reached Karakorum, Ögedei was enraged, rebuking his eldest son severely in a letter: You have broken the spirit of every man in your army... Do you think the Russians surrendered because of how mean you were to your own men?.[102][104] Ögedei ordered Güyük and Möngke to hand over their command of the right wing to Kadan and Büjek and return..[111] In early 1242, upon receiving news of Ögedei's death, Batu and Subutai halted their planned push toward the Atlantic Ocean and withdrew their armies back through Bulgaria and Walachia to the Pontic steppes; most historians attribute the withdrawal to Batu's need to take part in electing Ögedei's successor, although Batu never reached Mongolia for the election, while a minority argue that European fortifications posed a strategic problem for the Mongols.[112][113][114]

Campaigns in India, Kashmir, and Tibet

During his reign, Ögedei also directed military ventures into South Asia.[115] He appointed Dayir Baghatur to govern Ghazni and Menggetu Noyan to command Kunduz.[115] In the winter of 1241, Mongol forces invaded the Indus River valley, advancing deep into the territory of the Delhi Sultanate and laying siege to the strategic city of Lahore.[115][116] On 30 December 1241, Dayir Baghatur was killed while leading the storming of the city walls.[115] Disoriented by their commander's death and receiving sudden dispatches reporting Ögedei's demise in Mongolia, the Mongol troops massacred the entire civilian population of Lahore, burned the city, and withdrew northward out of the Punjab.[115][116]

Following an initial expedition around 1235, another Mongol force invaded Kashmir and established a permanent resident commissioner (darughachi), reducing the territory to a Mongol tributary dependency for several years.[117][118] Around the same time, a Kashmiri Buddhist master named Otochi and his brother Namo traveled to Karakorum, where they were received at Ögedei's imperial court.[117][118] In 1239 and 1240, Ögedei's second son Köden, who had been stationed in Liangzhou to govern the Gansu frontier, dispatched a subsidiary military expedition into central Tibet, which raided as far as Lhasa before withdrawing following Ögedei's death.[82]

State Building and Imperial Administration

Ögedei transformed the loosely organized nomadic conquerors into an institutionalized, bureaucratic empire.[119][120] His central administration was structured around three distinct cultural and bureaucratic circles: the Christian Eastern Turks, represented by the chief scribe Chinqai (a Kerait or Uyghur); the Muslim Khwarazmian circle, represented by Mahmud Yalavach and his son Masud Beg; and the North Chinese Confucian circle, represented by Khitan statesman Yelü Chucai and Jurchen official Nianhe Zhongshan.[119] In August 1231, Ögedei established the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng), appointing Yelü Chucai as Middle Minister (Zhongshuling), Nianhe Zhongshan as Left Chancellor, and Chinqai as Right Chancellor. In 1230, following Yelü Chucai's advice, the conquered Chinese territories were divided into ten administrative routes (lu), with regional taxation bureaus established under selected Confucian scholars to oversee revenue collection.[121][122]

In the early years of his reign, conservative Mongol steppe nobles led by an advisor named Biedie petitioned Ögedei to completely exterminate the Chinese farming populace, destroy their settlements, and convert the entire North China plain into pastureland for Mongol cavalry horses.[120][123] Yelü Chucai vigorously opposed this proposal, famously telling the Khagan that while the empire had been won on horseback, it could not be governed on horseback.[120] He presented detailed fiscal projections proving that by regularizing land taxes, trade excises, and state monopolies on salt, liquor, and metallurgy, the imperial treasury would harvest 500,000 ounces of silver, 80,000 rolls of silk, and 400,000 piculs of grain annually to fund Mongol armies.[123] Ögedei accepted Yelü Chucai's calculations, implementing the Han Land Tax Law (Han di shuifa) in 1231.[121][123] By 1238, annual tax revenue harvested from northern China had increased to 1.1 million ounces of silver.[124]

Following the fall of the Jin dynasty, Ögedei ordered a comprehensive census of northern China, completed in August 1236 under the direction of chief judge Shigi Khutugh, registering approximately 1.1 million households. When Mongol princes demanded that conquered agricultural lands and populations be partitioned into personal feudal fiefs, Yelü Chucai protested that direct feudal partition would dismember imperial authority.[125][126] Ögedei reached a structural compromise: Mongol princes were permitted to appoint overseers and receive a designated portion of the silk tribute (one catty per five households), but the central court reserved the exclusive right to appoint administrative officials, administer the law, and collect all general taxes.[125][126] Later in his reign, fiscal competition emerged when a Central Asian Muslim merchant named Abd-ur-Rahman promised to double the court's annual silver revenues, leading Ögedei to transfer primary tax farming authorities from Yelü Chucai to Abd-ur-Rahman.[127][128]

To standardize economic transactions, Ögedei authorized the circulation of official paper currency (Jiaochao) backed by state reserves of silver and silk beginning in January 1236, and established a specialized department to retire and burn deteriorated paper notes.[119][129] He actively sponsored and invested state capital in ortoq enterprises, in which Muslim merchant caravans traded goods across the Silk Road using imperial financing.[119] Although Ögedei prohibited usurious interest rates, ortoq merchants frequently lent money to peasants at exorbitant interest to meet tax obligations, prompting some rural families to flee their villages to escape tax collectors.[127] Nevertheless, the expansion of commercial networks restored the trans-Eurasian trade routes, fostering the period of economic interaction known as the Pax Mongolica.[130][131]

In 1234, Ögedei instituted the Yam (Örtöö) postal relay system across the empire to facilitate imperial governance, military coordination, and diplomatic communications.[100][132][133] Relay stations were established along main trade routes every 25 miles (approximately 40 kilometers), staffed by permanent personnel who maintained remount horses, provisions, and lodging for official couriers.[132][134][135] This infrastructure enabled imperial messengers equipped with official passports (paiza) to travel 350 to 400 kilometers per day, transmitting messages between Karakorum and distant provinces within seven to eleven days.[135][136] Attached households maintaining the stations were exempted from general taxes, paying only a specialized qubchuri levy.[132][137] Ögedei strictly forbade princes from issuing unauthorized jarliqs (decrees) or paizas.[132] He codified the Great Yassa, introduced conduct regulations for kurultais, established welfare herds by levying one sheep per hundred from wealthy pastoralists for the poor, and sponsored public well-digging projects across arid steppe routes.[132][138]

Ögedei actively patronized scholarship and educational institutions. In 1233, he ordered the founding of the Guozixue (National Academy) in Yanjing, enrolling eighteen Mongol youths to learn Chinese and twelve Han youths to study Mongolian and archery, alongside medicine, geography, and astronomy.[139][140] In 1233, he confirmed Kong Yuancuo, the fifty-first generation descendant of Confucius, as Duke Yansheng (衍聖公), restored Confucian temples, and established astrological observatories.[141][142] In 1236, he established an editorial office in Yanjing and a printing office in Pingyang to publish classic philosophical and historical texts.[143] In September 1237, at Yelü Chucai's request, Ögedei decreed the historic Wuxu Xuanshi (戊戌選試) imperial examinations, conducted across northern China in 1238, which recruited 4,030 Confucian scholars into administrative offices.[144][145][146][147][148] The examinations were later halted because some at the time considered them inconvenient.[149] Emperor Renzong of Yuan restored the examinations by decree in 1313..

Construction of Karakorum

Although Genghis Khan had used the upper Orkhon River valley as a military staging ground in 1220, Karakorum remained primarily a seasonal encampment of felt yurts until Ögedei's accession.[150][151] In 1235, Ögedei decided to build a permanent imperial capital surrounded by rammed-earth walls with four gates, completed within a single year.[151] At the city's heart stood the imperial palace, known as Wan'angong (萬安宮) in Chinese and Tumen Amgalant Ordon (Palace of Myriad Peace) in Mongolian, completed in January 1236, where Ögedei held lavish victory banquets.[151] The palace featured decorated pillars, elaborate garden gates, and nearby lakes where migratory waterfowl congregated.[134] A giant stone tortoise bearing an engraved pillar, like those commonly used in East Asia, stood at Karakorum..

Karakorum was divided into distinct wards allocated to different ethnicities and trades: Islamic merchants and Central Asian craftsmen occupied one sector, while North Chinese artisans and jurists resided in another.[135] The city functioned as a cosmopolitan hub of religious tolerance, containing Christian churches, Muslim mosques, Buddhist temples, and Daoist sanctuaries, alongside a Confucian shrine where Yelü Chucai worked on imperial calendar reforms.[135] Between 1235 and 1238, Ögedei also constructed secondary palaces and pavilions along his annual nomadic seasonal migration routes, including pavilions at Qarchaghan, Örmeqtü, and Lake Kökö-Nuur.[152] To supply the capital, 37 Yam stations were built between northern China and Karakorum, where five hundred carts laden with grain, silk, meat, and wine arrived daily.[134] Despite founding the stone capital, Ögedei frequently preferred living in traditional imperial felt ger tents pitched in the surrounding valleys.[153]

Character, Personal Life, and Controversies

Contemporaries portrayed Ögedei as a jovial, charismatic, physically stout, and humble ruler who did not consider himself an intellectual or military genius, but excelled at listening to competent commanders and mediating complex personal rivalries.[15][17][45][154] According to historian Pamela Kyle Crossley, a posthumous Yuan-era portrait painted in 1278 depicts Ögedei as a stocky man with a reddish beard and hazel eyes, while contemporary Chinese envoy Xu Ting recorded that his full beard was considered unusual among Mongols, who typically possessed little facial hair.[155][156] He was exceptionally generous with the plunder acquired during conquests, frequently distributing gold ingots, silk, and livestock to ordinary soldiers, attendants, and beggars; when his treasurers protested that he was bankrupting the court, Ögedei replied that worldly wealth was fleeting and only the favorable memory of a ruler survived.[120]

The unexpected death of his younger brother Tolui in October 1232 profoundly shaken Ögedei.[157][158] During the campaign against the Jin in Henan, Ögedei had fallen gravely ill.[158] According to some accounts, a shaman declared that Ögedei's illness came from the grudge of the spirits of the Chinese killed in the Jin campaign and from the spirits of the land and waters of China, and that he would recover only if a member of his family was offered as a sacrifice.. Tolui willingly volunteered to take his brother's place, stepped forward, and drank an enchanted or poisoned beverage during the shamanic ritual, dying shortly thereafter while traveling north toward the Onon River.[157] However, one tradition holds that Tolui was killed in a plot by Ögedei's associates and Töregene Khatun, and other accounts allege that Ögedei orchestrated Tolui's death with the help of shamans who drugged the alcoholic Tolui.[159][160] Following Tolui's death, Ögedei sought to marry Tolui's influential widow Sorghaghtani Beki to his son Güyük, but Sorghaghtani firmly declined, citing the necessity of raising her young sons Möngke, Kublai, Hulagu, and Ariq Böke.[161]

In a famous retrospective passage recorded in The Secret History of the Mongols and Ke Shaomin's Xin Yuanshi, Ögedei candidly assessed his own reign, balancing four personal achievements against four grave errors.[162][163] His four celebrated achievements were: the final destruction and conquest of the Jin dynasty; the establishment of the Yam postal relay station system; the construction of wells in waterless deserts to provide water and forage for nomadic travelers; and the creation of regional administrative offices and permanent garrison troops (tammachi/alginchin) to secure universal peace.[162] Conversely, his four self-confessed errors were: excessive indulgence in grape wine; unlawfully listening to an unprincipled woman and forcefully seizing maidens from the domain of his uncle Temüge Otchigin; constructing earthen hunting walls that obstructed his brothers from pursuing game freely; and ordering the wrongful execution of loyal Mongol commander Doqolqu Cherbi out of private personal resentment.[162][163]

The incident involving the seizure of women from Temüge Otchigin's appanage is closely tied to an allegation recorded by Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni in chapter 32 of his Tarikh-i Jahangushay, written in 1252.[163][164][165] Juvayni recounts fifty laudatory anecdotes illustrating Ögedei's mercy, justice, and generosity, but concludes the chapter with a final anecdote detailing extreme severity, asserting that following the death of his sister Checheyigen, who controlled the Oirat lands, the Oirats ceased delivering maidens to the imperial court.[165][166] In response, Ögedei allegedly ordered his soldiers to gather four thousand unmarried Oirat girls over seven years of age and subject them to mass rape in front of their assembled kinsmen; two girls reportedly died of torment, while the survivors were either taken into Ögedei's harem or distributed as prostitutes to caravan rest houses across the empire.[166][167][168][169] Scholar Jack Weatherford described this account as an extreme atrocity violating Genghis Khan's protective laws on women.[166][170] However, modern historians Anne F. Broadbridge and Igor de Rachewiltz have urged caution, noting that neither the Yuanshi nor The Secret History mentions mass rape, but only the forced requisition of women from the left wing and uncle Otchigin's territory, suggesting that Juvayni's narrative may reflect hostile embellishment or a distorted retelling of the Otchigin incident.[163][164][166]

Final Illness, Death, and Succession

Throughout his adult life, Ögedei struggled with severe alcoholism, preferring imported grape wine to traditional fermented mare's milk (airag).[171][172] His elder brother Chagatai repeatedly reprimanded him and assigned an official to strictly monitor and count the number of cups he consumed each day.[171][173] To circumvent this restriction, Ögedei ordered cups fashioned that were twice the normal size, allowing him to adhere to the permitted number of vessels while consuming double the volume of wine.[172] In his later years, obesity and chronic alcoholism undermined his constitution, leaving him susceptible to recurring bouts of disease and incapacitating him from riding horses.[173]

In March 1241, after returning from a hunting trip near the Chechek-Chaghan marsh, Ögedei became gravely ill.[173] In distress, Empress Töregene consulted Yelü Chucai, who advised that the Khagan practice mercy and declare a general imperial amnesty for prisoners; Töregene issued the decree, and Ögedei experienced a temporary recovery.[174] In November 1241, despite warnings from his physicians and Yelü Chucai, Ögedei departed for a winter hunt at Utēg-Kulan Mountain.[174] On the evening of 10 December 1241, he engaged in an all-night drinking bout with Abd-ur-Rahman in his hunting palace.[174] At dawn on 11 December 1241, Ögedei died in his sleep at the age of approximately fifty-five.[2][174] He was buried in the imperial cemetery in the Valley of Qinian (起輦谷), whose precise geographical location remains unidentified.[174][175]

Ata-Malik Juvayni's chronicle preserves an alternative literary anecdote regarding his death (Anecdote 47), asserting that Ögedei had captured and released a wolf in the hope that God would cure his diseased bowels if he showed mercy to a living creature; however, his lion-like hunting hounds pursued and tore the wolf to pieces, and Ögedei died shortly thereafter.[166] Following his demise, rumors of foul play circulated within the court: Tolui's sister-in-law, Abd-ur-Rahman, and Princesses Ibaka Beki and Al-Altan were suspected of poisoning him.[176][177] Ibaka Beki was exonerated through the intervention of Jalayir loyalists, while Al-Altan was subsequently executed.[177] Other accounts attributed his death to alcoholism and organ failure.[176] Some said he fell from his horse while drunk, or died of an illness brought on by anxiety and anger..

In the early 1230s, Ögedei had designated his beloved third son Köchü as his heir, but following Köchü's death in 1236, he selected Köchü's son Shiremün as his designated successor.[85][178] However, this choice was not binding on the Mongol nobility.[178] Following Ögedei's death, his formidable widow Töregene Khatun seized control of the court, ruling as regent for five years from 1241 until 1246.[121][178][179] She dismissed or marginalized ministers such as Yelü Chucai and Chinqai, substituted her confidante Fatima and Abd-ur-Rahman, and manipulated clan politics to secure the succession for her eldest son Güyük.[121][180] Temüge Otchigin tried in 1241 and again in 1246 to seize Karakorum with troops without a kurultai, but failed each time because of Töregene's strong opposition..

Batu Khan, harboring deep resentment against Güyük, boycotted the kurultai for years, delaying the imperial election until August 1246, when Güyük was finally enthroned as the third Great Khan.[179] Güyük's reign lasted only two years; he died in 1248 while marching west to confront Batu in an impending civil war.[181] After another regency under Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish, Batu and Berke supported Tolui's eldest son Möngke, who was elected Khagan in 1251.[181] Following an alleged coup plot, Shiremün was executed, and the descendants of Ögedei were purged and stripped of imperial authority, permanently transferring the khaganate to the Toluid line.[181][182] Nevertheless, Ögedei's grandson Kaidu (son of Qashi) later established the independent Chagatai-Ögedeid confederation in Central Asia, waging a four-decade war against Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty until his death in 1301.[183]

Consorts and Issue

Like his father, Ögedei maintained multiple wives and approximately sixty concubines.[184][185] Discrepancies exist between Chinese historical annals (such as the Yuanshi) and Persian sources (such as the Jami al-tawarikh) regarding the ranking and listing of his principal empresses.[186][187] Recent scholarship indicates that Ögedei initially created four major empress ordos in imitation of Genghis Khan, later expanding them to six, though the early deaths of senior empresses led Persian accounts to record only the four surviving consorts.[187] His primary wives were: Empress Boraqchin (孛剌合真), his first and highest-ranking consort; Empress Zhaoci (昭慈皇后), personal name Töregene (脱列哥那), from the Merkit or Naiman tribe, who gave birth to five sons and served as imperial regent; Empress Möge (木哥), formerly a concubine of Genghis Khan whom Ögedei inherited by levirate custom; Empress Jachin (札真), of Yenisei Kyrgyz origin; Empress Anghui (昂灰), who fostered Tolui's son Möngke; Empress Hutieni (忽帖尼 or 乞里吉忽帖尼), also inherited from Genghis Khan; and Concubine Ergene (業里吉納).[22][183][184][186][187][188][189][190][191]

Historical records indicate that Ögedei fathered seven sons and at least one daughter:[23][192]

1. Güyük Khan (貴由, c. 1206 – 1248), eldest son by Töregene; third Khagan of the Mongol Empire from 1246 to 1248.[22][23] 2. Köden (闊端, 1206 – 1251), second son, born to Töregene or Hutieni; appointed Prince of Xiliang, who governed the Gansu frontier and fostered the submission of Tibet following the Liangzhou summit with Sakya Pandita in 1247.[22][23][193] 3. Köchü (闊出, died November 1236), third son, born to Töregene or Boraqchin; Ögedei's initially chosen heir who led the central invasion of Southern Song China before dying on campaign at De'an; father of Shiremün, Boladchi, and Söse.[22][194][195] 4. Qarachar (哈剌察兒), fourth son, born to Töregene or Jachin; served by the administrative house of Tata-tonga; father of Totaq.[22][23] 5. Qashi (合失, 1215 – c. 1236), fifth son, born to Anghui or Töregene; a chronic drinker who predeceased his father; father of Kaidu, the third ruler of the Ögedeid Ulus who rivaled Kublai Khan.[23][183][189] 6. Kadan (合丹), sixth son, born to concubine Ergene; a prominent field commander during the invasions of Poland, Hungary, and Transylvania.[196] 7. Melik (滅里), seventh son, born to concubine Ergene; raised in the household of Danishmand Hajib.[197] His documented daughter was Princess Sürkhakhan of Lu (魯國公主 唆兒哈罕), who married Nahe of the Onggirat tribe, grandson of Anchen.[182][198]

Where editions disagree (4)
Ögedei's exact year and date of birth
  • English: Born c. 1186 AD.
  • Chinese: Born on 7 November 1186 (25th day of the 9th lunar month in Jin Dading 26).
  • Korean: Born on 7 November 1186 (15th day of the 9th lunar month), with an alternative tradition dating it to 1185.
  • German: Born in 1186 or 1189.
  • Buriat: Born in 1184.
  • Egyptian Arabic: Born on 14 November 1186.
  • Vietnamese: Born on 7 November 1183.
Circumstances of Tolui's death in 1232
  • English: Some sources state Tolui sacrificed his life by drinking a poisoned beverage in a shamanic ritual to save Ögedei from illness, while other sources claim Ögedei orchestrated his death with shamans who drugged him.
  • Korean: Shamans divined that spirits of dead Chinese demanded a family sacrifice, leading Tolui to voluntarily drink a poisoned cup, though an alternative tradition suggests Töregene Khatun and courtiers poisoned him.
  • Japanese: Tolui fell ill and died in October 1232 on the return journey toward the Onon River in Mongolia after Ögedei had recovered from his own illness near the Great Wall.
Cause and circumstances of Ögedei's death
  • English: Died on the morning of 11 December 1241 after an all-night drinking bout with Abd-ur-Rahman, though Tarikh-i Jahangushay also records an anecdote that he died after his hounds mauled a released wolf.
  • Korean: Died of alcoholism and organ failure, but alternative accounts allege poisoning by Töregene or her Persian servant Fatima, falling from a horse while drunk, or severe anxiety.
  • Turkish: Tradition states he died of poisoning in 1241.
  • Marathi: Died from excessive alcohol consumption combined with rheumatism.
  • Romanian: Died of natural causes.
Primary cause of the Mongol army's withdrawal from Central Europe in 1242
  • English: Attributed primarily to Ögedei's death requiring Batu Khan to withdraw to Mongolia for the kurultai, though a minority of scholars argue European fortifications created strategic obstacles.
  • Swedish: Subutai's army withdrew specifically to prevent Chagatai from seizing the supreme throne.
  • Italian: Caused by the news of Ögedei's death requiring a new kurultai, reinforced by superstition and tactical scorched-earth withdrawal through Bulgaria.
Sources (81 Wikipedia editions)

Non-English editions contribute extensive information missing from the English article, such as the detailed administrative mechanics of the 1238 Wuxu Xuanshi civil service examinations, the fiscal debates over preserving Han agricultural land versus conversion to pasture, and the Duanping Ruluo campaign found in the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean editions. The Korean, Japanese, and Russian editions provide specific operational accounts of campaigns in Goryeo Korea, the Caucasus, and Volga Bulgaria, including the destruction of the nine-story Hwangnyongsa wooden pagoda and the murder of envoy 저고여. Furthermore, the German, Korean, and Bashkir editions supply unique historical anecdotes detailing the medical supervision and doubling of Ögedei's drinking vessels, the division of Genghis Khan's 129,000-man army at his death, and the poisoning accusations surrounding Tolui's and Ögedei's deaths.

Assembled from the Wikipedia articles below, each pinned to the revision read on 2026-09-27. Together they hold 476 references; the English article alone has 43.

EditionArticleRevisionSizeRefs
EnglishÖgedei Khan137524595341.1 KB43
Tamilஒக்தாயி கான்444397287.5 KB33
Korean오고타이 칸4225859671.3 KB20
MongolianӨгэдэй хаан87022965.4 KB6
Japaneseオゴデイ11110690055.7 KB7
Hebrewאוגדיי חאן4367301046.9 KB0
Chinese窝阔台9453715542.2 KB57
PortugueseOgedai Khan7297480440.3 KB41
SerbianОгатај-кан3120296632.8 KB0
RussianУгэдэй15524148832.8 KB11
UkrainianУґедей4820920427.4 KB0
CatalanOgodei3858392624.6 KB22
SlovenianÖgedej658567824.1 KB23
IndonesianÖgedei Khan2871477022.9 KB6
SpanishOgodei17107383920.2 KB16
BasqueOgedei1074589620.0 KB25
Serbian (Latin)Ogataj-kan4255790319.3 KB1
Banglaওগেদাই খান872094019.3 KB11
GreekΟγκεντέι Χαν1164649619.0 KB9
Persianاوگتای خان4316057118.4 KB11
Arabicأوقطاي خان7473475716.6 KB19
VietnameseOa Khoát Đài7508507716.1 KB4
FrenchÖgedeï23562071214.7 KB9
BashkirҮгеҙәй98856312.2 KB6
OccitanOgedei239593010.5 KB11
TurkishÖgeday3678989710.4 KB4
Marathiओगदेई खान206930910.1 KB0
HungarianÖgödej mongol nagykán286684919.0 KB1
Malayalamഒഗെദെയ് ഖാൻ39119398.2 KB7
KazakhҮгедей хан35988007.7 KB1
ItalianÖgödei Khan1522475957.5 KB7
GermanÖgedei Khan2619363676.8 KB3
SwedishÖgödei488426586.6 KB18
Thaiโอเกเดย์ ข่าน132753246.5 KB4
Western Panjabiاوغدائی خان5712315.9 KB2
Georgianუგედეი42731645.4 KB0
FinnishÖgödei-kaani216657685.0 KB7
GalicianÖgödei73484665.0 KB0
PolishUgedej771732004.9 KB0
RomanianOgodai154627844.7 KB7
AlbanianÖgedei Han29573194.4 KB3
BelarusianУгедэй45095753.9 KB0
Urduاوغدائی خان92563503.5 KB0
Hindiओगताई ख़ान48218853.5 KB2
LithuanianUgedėjus71710653.0 KB2
MalayÖgedei Khan65906023.0 KB1
Central Kurdishئۆگدای خان14862133.0 KB1
AsturianOgodei42937822.9 KB1
DutchÖgedei Khan703172092.8 KB0
LatvianUgedejs44704612.7 KB0
UzbekOʻqtoyxon61193832.5 KB0
KyrgyzУгедей5562952.4 KB0
CzechÖgedej228159112.3 KB2
azbاوقتای‌خان6053022.3 KB1
AfrikaansÖgedei Khan27263422.2 KB1
Haitian CreoleÖgedeï8617381.8 KB2
EsperantoOgedei Ĥano85810991.7 KB1
ArmenianՈւգեդեյ108924301.6 KB1
AzerbaijaniUgedey xan88723401.5 KB0
zh_min_nanÖgedei31485781.4 KB0
simpleÖgedei Khan102113981.4 KB0
CroatianOgotaj69447491.3 KB3
LatinUgadai39000771.3 KB1
ScotsÖgedei Khan6936661.2 KB2
BuriatҮгэдэй502531.2 KB0
NorwegianÖgedei Khan240306201.2 KB0
BulgarianУгедей хан125988521.1 KB0
zh_classical窩闊臺3573741.0 KB0
Uyghurئۆگەدەي1632221.0 KB0
Egyptian Arabicاوقطاى خان130625580.9 KB0
IcelandicÖgedei Khan18591960.8 KB0
SlovakOgotaj83205190.7 KB0
MalagasyÖgedei Khan11225410.6 KB0
EstonianUgedei-khaan63533870.6 KB0
cdoÖgedei948140.6 KB0
Gan Chinese窩闊台3953670.6 KB0
FilipinoÖgedei Khan21722740.6 KB0
Tibetanཨོ་གོ་ཏ།1295730.5 KB0
zh_yue窩闊台17051880.4 KB0
Wu Chinese窝阔台2254050.3 KB0
Crimean TatarÖgeday Han1743140.1 KB0
The text on this page comes from the Wikipedia articles listed above, written by their contributors, and is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 licence. It was translated and merged from those articles, may contain errors, and has not been reviewed by Wikipedia editors. The image is from Wikimedia Commons; its own licence is on its file page. SuperCharged Wiki is not affiliated with or endorsed by the Wikimedia Foundation. How this works.

References

  1. 白石 2006, p. 158. (白石典之『チンギス・カン ”蒼き狼”の実像』中央公論新社〈中公新書〉、2006年1月。ISBN 4-12-101828-1。)
  2. 呼格吉勒圖, 薩如拉 編著, 《八思巴字蒙古語文獻匯編》, pp. 51, 60, 80-81; 蔡美彪, 《元代白話碑集錄》, pp. 37, 40, 43
  3. 见于《蒙古秘史》第270至272等节，共十餘处。
  4. de ög- : donner et -dei, suffixe de dérivation
  5. de la ög-: „a da” și -dei, sufix de derivare
  6. Kempf, Béla (2010/11). “Ethnonyms and etymology: The case of Oyrat and beyond”. 《Ural-altaische Jahrbücher》 23: 198-99.
  7. de Rachewiltz, Igor (2013). 《The Secret History of the Mongols, Volume 3 (Supplement): A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century》. BRILL. 101쪽.
  8. 杉山 2014, p. 248. (杉山正明『大モンゴルの世界』KADOKAWA〈角川文庫〉、2014年12月。ISBN 978-4-04-409218-4。)
  9. 杉山 1990, p. 13.
  10. 杉山 2016, p. 30-31. (杉山正明『興亡の世界史 モンゴル帝国と長いその後』講談社〈講談社学術文庫〉、2016年4月。ISBN 978-4-06-292352-1。)
  11. Twitchett, Denis C.; Franke, Herbert; Fairbank, John King. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. Cambridge University Press. 1978: 367 [2021-05-02]. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5. （原始内容存档于2021-05-10） （英语）.
  12. 柯劭忞. 《新元史‧卷四‧本紀第四‧太宗》. 中華民國 （中文）. 秋八月已未，諸王百官會於怯綠連河闊迭額阿剌勒，請帝遵太祖遺詔即位，共上尊號曰木亦堅合罕。
  13. "Volume 2 Annals 2: Taizong, Dingzong". History of Yuan (in Chinese). 太宗英文皇帝，諱窩闊台，太祖第三子...在位十三年，壽五十有六。葬起輦谷。
  14. Secret history of the Mongols, $3, II
  15. David Morgan The Mongols, p. 104.
  16. 村上 1976, p. 172. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 3巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫294〉、1976年8月。ISBN 4-582-80294-X。)
  17. The Secret history of the Mongols
  18. 村上 1972, pp. 123–130. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 2巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫209〉、1972年4月。ISBN 4-582-80209-5。)
  19. 村上 1972, pp. 140–142. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 2巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫209〉、1972年4月。ISBN 4-582-80209-5。)
  20. 村上 1972, pp. 140–143. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 2巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫209〉、1972年4月。ISBN 4-582-80209-5。)
  21. 村上 1972, p. 307. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 2巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫209〉、1972年4月。ISBN 4-582-80209-5。)
  22. 《显贵世系》：脱列哥那：……她是贵由【合】罕的母亲，除此之外她还生育了其他三子。
  23. Buyandelger 2024, pp. 176–177.
  24. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 87. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  25. 杉山 2016, p. 109. (杉山正明『興亡の世界史 モンゴル帝国と長いその後』講談社〈講談社学術文庫〉、2016年4月。ISBN 978-4-06-292352-1。)
  26. 村上 1976, p. 105. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 3巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫294〉、1976年8月。ISBN 4-582-80294-X。)
  27. Marvin C Whiting Imperial Chinese Military History, p. 355.
  28. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 109. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  29. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 114-115. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  30. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 121-122. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  31. 佐口 & 1968-3, pp. 189–191. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  32. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 191. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  33. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 192. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  34. John Joseph Saunders The History of the Mongol Conquests, p. 57.
  35. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 228-229. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  36. John Powell Magill's Guide to Military History: Jap-Pel, p. 1148.
  37. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 231. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  38. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 232. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  39. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 234. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  40. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 252. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  41. Richard Ernest Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt Dupuy The encyclopedia of military history, p. 336.
  42. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 268. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  43. 佐口 & 1968-3, p. 273. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 1巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫110〉、1968年3月。ISBN 4-582-80110-2。)
  44. 村上 1976, p. 184. (村上正二（訳注）『モンゴル秘史 チンギス・カン物語』 3巻、平凡社〈東洋文庫294〉、1976年8月。ISBN 4-582-80294-X。)
  45. Маклинн Ф. Чингисхан. Человек, завоевавший мир. — М., 2019. — 868 с.
  46. Michael Prawdin, Gerard (INT) Chaliand, The Mongol Empire, p. 237.
  47. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 17. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  48. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 23. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  49. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 24. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  50. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 25. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  51. Mirgalyev 2017, p. 62.
  52. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 63. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  53. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 64. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  54. لغت‌نامهٔ دهخدا. «اگتای قاآن | پارسی ویکی». بایگانی‌شده از اصلی در ۴ اوت ۲۰۱۷.
  55. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 69. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  56. aiguanli (4 April 2026). "The Fall of the Jin Dynasty: How Genghis Khan Outmaneuvered the Golden Empire". Ancient War History. Retrieved 23 May 2026.
  57. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 72. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  58. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 73. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  59. Atwood, Christopher P. «Pu'a's Boast and Doqolqu's Death: Historiography of a Hidden Scandal in the Mongol Conquest of the Jin» (en anglès). Journal of Song-Yuan Studies, 45, 2015, p. 264-265. ISSN: 1059-3152. | //www.worldcat.org/issn/1059-3152
  60. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 74. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  61. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 75. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  62. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 79. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  63. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 77. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  64. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 78. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  65. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 82. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  66. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 83. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  67. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 84. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  68. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 85. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  69. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 88-89. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  70. 《元史》卷一百四十六《耶律楚材传》记载：汴梁将下，大将速不台遣使来言：“金人抗拒持久，师多死伤，城下之日，宜屠之。”楚材驰入奏曰：“将士暴露数十年，所欲者土地人民耳。得地无民，将焉用之！”帝犹豫未决，楚材曰：“奇巧之工，厚藏之家，皆萃于此，若尽杀之，将无所获。”帝然之，诏罪止完颜氏，余皆勿问。时避兵居汴者得百四十七万人。
  71. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 91. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  72. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 94. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  73. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 96. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  74. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 97-98. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  75. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 98. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  76. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 99. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  77. 具体详见《端平入洛——收复三京与蒙、宋的开战》 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），作者：王颋，原载《元朝史探索初集》
  78. 徐鹿卿《清正存稿》卷一《四年丁酉六月轮对第一札》：“辛卯之灾，上及宗庙，人谓权臣专擅之应也，陛下方且念其羽翼之劳，潜晦委重，于是乎天怒未息，而警之以丧师失地之变焉。三京之败，流毒至今，人以为诸臣狂易之致也，顾乃委曲讳护，越三年而始下哀痛之诏。于是，天怒未息，而又警之以震雷之威焉”。
  79. 方大琮《铁庵集》卷二○《与曽太卿式中书》：“凡向所奬拔之偏裨，今有能为将者？向所拣练之行伍，其居者捍乡井，其出者非独有功于闽，而江、广实頼之。惜乎始折于三京，继损于邳、徐，近又殲于定城，而西兵之精锐畧尽矣，谁实使然？言之短气”。
  80. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 119. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  81. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 120. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  82. Herbert Franke, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, p. 263.
  83. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 121. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  84. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 122. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  85. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 123. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  86. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 124. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  87. (Ingelesez) Staff, HistoryNet. (2006-06-12). «Mongol Empire: Chormaquan and the Mongol Conquest of the Middle East» HistoryNet (kontsulta data: 2024-05-27).
  88. Amitai, Reuven. (1995). Mongols and Mamluks : the Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. Cambridge [England] ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-0-521-46226-6. (kontsulta data: 2024-05-27).
  89. Петрушевский И. П. Иран и Азербайджан под властью Хулагуидов (1256–1353 гг.) // Татаро-монголы в Азии и Европе : Сборник статей. — М.: Наука, 1977. — С. 231.
  90. René Grousset, Histoire des Croisades, III, pàgina 366
  91. Timothy May-Mongol Empire: Chormaquan and the Mongol Conquest of the Middle East
  92. Галстян А. Завоевание Армении монгольскими войсками // Татаро-монголы в Азии и Европе : Сборник статей. — М.: Наука, 1977. — С. 170.
  93. Michel Hoàng, Ingrid Cranfield Genghis Khan, p. 159.
  94. 『元史』卷2・太宗本紀「（太宗三年秋八月）是月、以高麗殺使者、命撤禮塔率師討之、取四十餘城。」
  95. 『元史』卷208・高麗傳「（太祖十九年）十二月、又使焉、盜殺之于途、自是連七歳絶信使矣。 太宗三年八月、命撒禮塔征其國、國人洪福源迎降于軍、得福源所率編民千五百戸、旁近州郡亦有來師者。」
  96. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 116. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  97. J.Bor Mongol hiigeed Eurasiin diplomat shashtir, vol. II, p. 197.
  98. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 117. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  99. 이 문서에는 다음커뮤니케이션(현 카카오)에서 GFDL 또는 CC-SA 라이선스로 배포한 글로벌 세계대백과사전의 〈고려 왕실과 원나라〉 항목을 기초로 작성된 글이 포함되어 있습니다.
  100. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 105. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  101. Liptai, Ervin. Military history of Hungary (en anglès). 2. Budapest: Zrínyi katonai Kiadó, 1985. ISBN 963-326-337-9.
  102. Weatherford, Jack (22 March 2005). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Crown. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-307-23781-1.
  103. Timothy May. (2008). Chormaqan. .
  104. Christian, David (1998). Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 412. ISBN 0-631-18321-3.
  105. Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York: Crown. p. 162. ISBN 0-609-61062-7.
  106. Kulgen je bil sin Džingiskana in Kulan katun iz plemena Merkitov.
  107. Khulgen era el hijo de Genghis Khan por Khulan khatun del clan Merkit.
  108. John Joseph Saunders The History of the Mongol Conquests, p.74
  109. Morgan, David O.. (1989-06-01). «The Mongols and the eastern Mediterranean» Mediterranean Historical Review 4 (1): 198–211. doi:10.1080/09518968908569567. ISSN 0951-8967. (kontsulta data: 2020-04-26).
  110. 김호동, 「구육(정종)과 그의 시대」, 105쪽.
  111. 김호동, 「구육(정종)과 그의 시대」, 106쪽.
  112. Mirgalyev 2017, p. 137.
  113. Werner Pluta: Die Supermacht im Osten. In: Die Zeit, Nr. 2/2002
  114. Deep ditches and well-built walls: a reappraisal of the Mongol withdrawal from Europe in 1242 by Lindsey Stephen Pow, 2012, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/25533.
  115. Islamic Culture Board Islamic culture, p. 256.
  116. Islamic Culture Board-Islamic culture, str. 256
  117. Thomas T. Allsen Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p. 84.
  118. Thomas T. Allsen-Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, str. 84
  119. Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships". Central Asian Survey. 38 (4): 531–547. doi:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799. S2CID 203044817.
  120. Mirgalyev 2017, p. 65.
  121. 《元史》卷二《太宗本纪》 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）记载：二年庚寅，“冬十一月，始置十路征收课税使，以陈时可、赵昉使燕京，刘中、刘桓使宣德，周立和、王贞使西京，吕振、刘子振使太原，杨简、高廷英使平阳，王晋、贾从使真定，张瑜、王锐使东平，王德亨、侯显使北京，夹谷永、程泰使平州，田木西、李天翼使济南。”
  122. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 68. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  123. 《元史》卷一百四十六《耶律楚材传》. [2012-08-19]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-22）.
  124. 《元史》卷一百四十六《耶律楚材传》 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）记载：“自庚寅定课税格，至甲午平河南，岁有增羡，至戊戌，课银增至一百一十万两。”
  125. 《元史》卷一百四十六《耶律楚材传》记载：八年丙申，秋七月，忽都虎以民籍至，帝议裂州县赐亲王功臣。楚材曰：“裂土分民，易生嫌隙，不如多以金帛与之。”帝曰：“已许奈何？”楚材曰：“若朝廷置吏，收其贡赋，岁终颁之，使毋擅科征，可也。”帝然其计，遂定天下赋税，每二户出丝一斤，以给国用；五户出丝一斤，以给诸王功臣汤沐之资。地税，中田每亩二升又半，上田三升，下田二升，水田每亩五升；商税，三十分而一；盐价，银一两四十斤。既定常赋，朝议以为太轻，楚材曰：“作法于凉，其弊犹贪，后将有以利进者，则今已重矣。”
  126. Chunjiang Fu, Asiapac Editorial, Liping Yang Chinese History, p. 148.
  127. David Morgan The Mongols, p. 102.
  128. 《蒙兀儿史记》卷四《斡歌歹汗本纪》
  129. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 110. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  130. (en) Charlton M. Lewis e W. Scott Morton, China : Its History and Culture, Nòva York, McGraw-Hill Education, 4a edicion, 2004, p. 121.
  131. (en) Laurence Bergreen, Marco Polo : From Venice to Xanadu, Nòva York, Vintage, 2007, pp. 27-28.
  132. Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach Medieval Islamic Civilization, p. 632.
  133. Even et Pop 1994, p. 246
  134. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 108. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  135. Mirgalyev 2017, p. 66.
  136. (LA) Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Historia Mongalorum, su archive.org. URL consultato il 3 maggio 2026. in: G.Pullé, Historia Mongalorum, Firenze, 1913.
  137. Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach-Medieval Islamic Civilization, str. 632
  138. Mongolia Society – Occasional Papers – p. 17.
  139. 《北京史(增订版)》，第五章 元代的大都 第三节 大都的文化，作者：北京大学历史系《北京史》编写组，北京出版社，1999年2月第1版
  140. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 115. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  141. 《元史》卷二《太宗本纪》记载：五年癸巳，是冬，帝至阿鲁兀忽可吾行宫。大风霾七昼夜。敕修孔子庙及浑天仪。
  142. 《元朝蒙古族教育的异彩华章》 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆），包头师范学院冀文秀教授在“2009年第六届中国内蒙古草原文化节”上的发言。
  143. 《元史》卷二《太宗本纪》记载：八年丙申，六月，耶律楚材请立编修所于燕京，经籍所于平阳，编集经史，召儒士梁陟充长官，以王万庆、赵著副之。
  144. 《庙学典礼》卷一《选试儒人免差》：丁酉年（1237年）八月二十五日，皇帝圣旨道与呼图克、和塔拉、和坦、谔噜、博克达扎尔固齐官人每：“自来精业儒人，二十年间学问方成。古昔张置学校，官为廪给，养育人才。今来名儒凋丧，文风不振。所据民间应有儒士，都收拾见数。若高业儒人，转相教授，攻习儒业，务要教育人材。其中选儒士，若有种田者，输纳地税，买卖者，出纳商税，开张门面营运者，依行例供出差发，除外，其余差发并行蠲免。此上委令断事官蒙格德依与山西东路徵收课程所长官刘中，遍行诸路一同监试，仍将论及经义、词赋分为三科，作三日程试，专治一科为一经，或有能兼者，但不失文义者为中选。其中选儒人，与各住处达噜噶齐 、管民官一同商量公事勾当者。随后照依先降条理，开辟举场，精选入仕，续听朝命。准此。”【其中，文中的“扎尔固齐”，元代文献中常作「达鲁花赤」，参见《元史》卷八七《百官志三》。文中的“达噜噶齐”，元代文献中常作「达鲁花赤」，参见《元史》卷九○《百官志六》。】
  145. 《中国全史》中对“戊戌选试”的介绍：“设策论、经义、词赋三科，日期定为三天，凡专治一科不失文义者中选，能兼者参加几科的考试听其自便。凡汉族知识分子在战乱中被俘为奴隶者，也可参加考试，如主人藏匿不遣者处以死刑。考试中选者给予他们享受赋役的优厚待遇，任命他们与各处长官同署公事。”
  146. 韩儒林《元朝史》中对“戊戌选试”的介绍：元朝科举的最初尝试是在元太宗窝阔台时期，“太宗始取中原，中书令耶律楚材请用儒术选士，从之”。窝阔台汗九年（1237年）八月，下诏命断事官术忽德与山西东路课税所长官刘中，“历诸路考试。以论及经义、词赋分为三科，作三日程，专治一科，能兼者听，但不以失文义为中选。其中选者，复其赋役，令与各处长官同署公事”（《元史》卷81《选举志》一，第2017页）。诏令中所说的“复其赋役”，指的是“其中选儒生，若有种田者纳地税，买卖者出纳商税，开张门面营运者依例供差发除外，其余差发并行蠲免”。凡中选的儒生，“与各住达噜噶齐管民官一同商量公事勾当着。随后依照先降条例开辟举场，精选入仕，续听朝命”（《选试儒人免差》，《庙学典礼》卷1）。
  147. 元朝的科举取士一共经历四个阶段：戊戌选试、延祐复科、至元废科和至正复科。
  148. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 114. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  149. 《元史·选举志一·科目》. [2011-10-02]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-26）.
  150. Micheal Weiers, Geschichte der Mongolen, Stuttgart 2004, p. 76
  151. Hans–Georg Hüttel, Karakorum – Eine historische Skizze, in: Dschingis Khan und seine Erben, p. 133–137
  152. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 125. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  153. Mark Cartwright: Ogedei Khan World History Encyclopedia. 23.9.2019. Viitattu 19.4.2022.
  154. 《元史》卷二《太宗本紀》. [2011-05-18]. （原始内容存档于2020-11-24）.
  155. Crossley, Pamela Kyle (28 February 2019). Hammer and Anvil: Nomad Rulers at the Forge of the Modern World. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-4422-1445-3. "Ogedei was confirmed as the new ruler in 1229 and reigned until his death in 1241. We may know what he looked like, thanks to his well-known portrait, (painted about a hundred years after his death), showing him as stocky in the same way as Genghis, red bearded, hazel eyed, and well prepared for Northern interiors with his domed, fur-trimmed winter helmet."
  156. Garcia, Chad D. (2012). "A New Kind of Northerner: Initial Song Perceptions of the Mongols". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 42: 335. ISSN 1059-3152. JSTOR 43855132. "The significance of Ögödei's beard is mentioned by Xu Ting when he writes "The Black Mongols have little facial hair. Thus full beards must be highly valued by them." Here, Xu's words closely mirror those of Zhao Gong, in not only describing a Khan s full beard, but that the majority of the Mongols were unable to grow them.
  157. Denis Sinor, John R. Krueger, Rudi Paul Lindner, Valentin Aleksandrovich The Uralic and Altaic Series, p. 176.
  158. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 101. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  159. Weatherford 2011, p. 92. (Weatherford, Jack (2011). The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire. Broadway Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0307407160. OCLC 915759962.)
  160. Weatherford, Jack. (2011). The secret history of the mongol queens : how the daughters of Genghis Khan rescued his empire. p. 92. ISBN 9780307407160. OCLC 915759962.
  161. Man, John (2007). Kublai Khan. London: Bantam Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-553-81718-8.
  162. 《新元史》卷四《太宗本紀》. [2011-06-14]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-20）.
  163. De Rachewiltz, Igor. The Secret History of the Mongols, A Mongolian Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century, Translated with a Historical and Philological Commentary, Volume One. Brill Leiden Boston: Brill's Inner Asian Library. pp. 1032–1035.
  164. Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018). Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-108-42489-9.
  165. Boyle, John Andrew (1958). The History of the World Conqueror by Ala-ad-din Ata-Malik JUVAINI, Translated from the text of Mirza Muhammad Qazvini. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 201.
  167. Weatherford 2011, pp. 89–91. (Weatherford, Jack (2011). The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire. Broadway Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0307407160. OCLC 915759962.)
  168. Weatherford, Jack. (2011). The secret history of the mongol queens : how the daughters of Genghis Khan rescued his empire. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-307-40716-0. OCLC 915759962.
  169. 把少女當成性奴──窩闊台打擊「成吉思汗的女兒們」的殘忍手段 The News Lens 2018/02/27.
  170. Weatherford, Jack (2011). The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire (in ஆங்கிலம்). Broadway Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-307-40716-0. Everyone knew that this barbarous act violated in spirit and in detail the long list of laws Genghis Khan had made regarding women. Girls could marry at a young age but could not engage in sex until sixteen, and then they initiated the encounter with their husbands. They could not be seized, raped, kidnapped, bartered or sold. Ogodei violated every single one of those laws.
  171. Джон Мэн. Хубилай : От Ксанаду до сверхдержавы = Kublai Khan : From Xanadu to Superpower / Пер. с англ. В. А. Федорова. — Москва, Владимир : ВКТ, АСТ, АСТ Москва, Neoclassic, 2008. — 416 с. — (Историческая библиотека). — ISBN 978-5-17-051399-4. — ISBN 978-5-9713-9334-4. — ISBN 978-5-226-00738-5.
  172. Мэн Джон. Хубилай: От Ксанаду до сверхдержавы. Москва-Владимир. 2008
  173. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 127. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  174. 佐口 & 1968-12, p. 128. (C.M.ドーソン『モンゴル帝国史』 2巻、佐口透訳注、平凡社〈東洋文庫128〉、1968年12月。ISBN 4-582-80128-5。)
  175. Mote, F.W. (2003). ”Kublai Khan's Successors, 1294–1370” (på engelska). Imperial China 900-1800. Harvard University Press. sid. 413. ISBN 0674012127. https://books.google.se/books?id=SQWW7QgUH4gC&lpg=PR8&dq=Imperial%20China%20900-1800%20M%C3%B6ngke%20Khan%20and%20the%20Third%20Campaign%20to%20the%20West&hl=sv&pg=PA468#v=onepage&q&f=false. Läst 13 januari 2016
  176. Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018). Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42489-9, pp. 168-169, 187 n. 125, 223
  177. Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018). Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42489-9, pp. 168-169, 187 n. 125
  178. Craughwell, Thomas J. (1 February 2010). The Rise and Fall of the Second Largest Empire in History: How Genghis Khan's Mongols Almost Conquered the World. Fair Winds Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-61673-851-8.
  179. Mirgalyev 2017, p. 138.
  180. (en) Timothy May, The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 Volumes], Bloomsbury Academic, 7 novembre 2016 (ISBN 978-1-61069-339-4, lire en ligne), p. 44-46
  181. Grousset 1965, p. 349.
  182. 宇野 1993, pp. 76–78. (宇野伸浩「チンギス・カン家の通婚関係の変遷」『東洋史研究』第52巻第3号、東洋史研究會、1993年12月31日、399-434頁、CRID 1390572174787676416、ISSN 0386-9059、NAID 40002660243。)
  183. 《显贵世系》：昂灰：她出自弘吉刺惕部落，是合西歹汗之母。
  184. Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb, 1247–1318. (1971). The successors of Genghis Khan. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 620. ISBN 0-231-03351-6. OCLC 160563.
  185. Фазлуллах, Рашид ад-Дин (2002). Судрын чуулган. Vol. 2. Translated by Ц, Сүрэнхорлоо (2 хэвлэл). Улаанбаатар. х. 5.
  186. 松田 1996, p. 23. (松田孝一「オゴデイ諸子ウルスの系譜と継承」『ペルシア語古写本史料精査によるモンゴル帝国の諸王家に関する総合的研究』1996年、21–65頁。)
  187. Buyandelger 2024, p. 171.
  188. 刘迎胜. 《元太宗收继元太祖后妃考——以乞里吉忽帖尼皇后与阔里桀担皇后为中心》. 《民族研究》. 2019年, (第01期): 86–96 [2020-06-25]. （原始内容存档于2020-12-11）.
  189. 《通鉴续编》卷22：帝七子，其长曰合西歹，二皇后昂灰所生也，蚤卒。
  190. 《通鉴续编》卷22：帝七子……曰合丹，曰灭里，七皇后所生也。
  191. Сборник летописей Рашид-ад-Дина.
  192. 邱轶皓. 《蒙古帝国的权力结构（13—14世纪）》. 复旦大学博士论文. 2011年: 113–129.
  193. The first Buddhist Mongol prince
  194. His son, Shiremün was appointed heir by Ögedei.
  195. during the campaign in Song China
  196. He is one of the 3 noble princes who participated in the European expedition
  197. "History of the New Yuan Dynasty"
  198. Brother of Borte