Ptolemy I Soter

Early life and background

Ptolemy was an ancient Macedonian born in the Upper Macedonian region of Eordaea.^[1][2][8] His mother was Arsinoe of Macedon.^[9][10] According to Satyrus the Peripatetic, Arsinoe was a descendant of King Alexander I of Macedon, placing her in the Argead dynasty that traced its lineage ultimately to Heracles.^[8] Official genealogies presented Ptolemy as a relative of the Argead royal family.^[8][11] His father was officially Lagus, an Eordaean nobleman of landed property whose family had not previously attained wide political prominence.^[2][8] Ancient rumors claimed that Arsinoe was already pregnant by King Philip II of Macedon when she married Lagus, which would have made Ptolemy an illegitimate half-brother of Alexander the Great.^[12][13] Most modern historians regard this story as later dynastic propaganda fabricated to bolster the legitimacy of the Ptolemaic dynasty against rivals like the Seleucids and Antigonids, who also claimed Argead or Heraclid origins.^[8][14][15] Ptolemy had a brother named Menelaus, who later served him as a general and naval commander.^[2][16]

The exact year of Ptolemy's birth is debated in historical sources. Lucian states in his treatise on long-lived individuals that Ptolemy died at the age of 84.^[17] Because his death occurred around 283/282 BC, Lucian's reckoning places his birth in 367/366 BC.^[8] Historians Auguste Bouche-Leclercq and Edward Robert Bevan argued instead that Ptolemy was a childhood companion of the same age as Alexander, who was born in 356 BC.^[8][18] Waldemar Heckel noted that the idea of Ptolemy being the same age as Alexander lacks source support and favored Lucian's chronology, making Ptolemy about ten to eleven years older than Alexander.^[8][19][20] Other traditions place his birth in 369/368 BC.^[21]

In his youth, Ptolemy lived at the royal court in Pella as a page and companion (syntrophos) of Prince Alexander.^[22] He is believed to have been among the aristocratic Macedonian youths instructed by Aristotle at Mieza.^[23][24] Around 353 BC, at roughly fourteen years old, he joined the court environment and later accompanied King Philip II on his campaign in Chalcidice in 349–348 BC.^[22] He likely fought at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC alongside Alexander.^[25] In 337 BC, Alexander entered into a dispute with his father concerning the Pixodarus affair, an initiative by Pixodarus, the satrap of Caria, to marry his daughter Ada to Philip Arrhidaeus.^[26][27][28] Alexander and his closest friends intervened in the negotiations, which provoked the anger of Philip II.^[26][28] Philip banished Ptolemy along with Harpalus, Nearchus, Erigyius, and Laomedon.^[26][28][29] Ptolemy likely went into exile in Epirus with Alexander and Alexander's mother Olympias.^[30] When Philip II was assassinated in the summer of 336 BC and Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, Ptolemy and the other exiles were recalled to court and received high military honors.^[29][31][32]

Campaigns with Alexander the Great

Ptolemy served with Alexander from his earliest military operations, participating in the Balkan campaign and the siege and destruction of Thebes in 335 BC.^[33][34][35] He accompanied the Macedonian expeditionary army into Asia in 334 BC, where an inscription from Miletus records that he dedicated a statue to Apollo together with two companions.^[33] During the initial phase of the Persian campaign, Ptolemy held no independent command.^[8][36] In November 333 BC, he served at the Battle of Issus, commanding troops on the left wing under Parmenion and participating as an ordinary companion cavalryman in the pursuit of Darius III.^[37][38][39] In 331 BC, he accompanied Alexander to the Oracle of Ammon in the Siwa Oasis, where the king was declared the son of Zeus-Ammon.^[37][40][41] Ptolemy described this journey in his memoirs, recording the story that two speaking serpents guided the army across the desert.

Ptolemy received his first prominent assignments in 330 BC. At the Battle of the Persian Gates in January 330 BC, Alexander placed him in command of a detachment of 3,000 men to guard the anticipated retreat route of Ariobarzanes, leading to the destruction of the Persian force.^[42][43][44] Some scholars have questioned Ptolemy's account of this engagement, suggesting that he exaggerated his role at the expense of Philotas.^[44] Ptolemy was probably appointed the royal taster (edeatros) in the summer of 330 BC, when Alexander adopted Persian court ceremonial.^[45] The title of edeatros later came to mean the head of all the royal servants, a high and honorable post.^[46] In the autumn of 330 BC, following the conspiracy of Dimnos and the execution of Philotas, the royal bodyguard Demetrius was executed for alleged involvement.^[47][48][49] Ptolemy was chosen to replace Demetrius as one of the seven somatophylakes (personal bodyguards) of Alexander, an appointment that elevated him into the king's closest circle of advisers.^[47][48][50]

During the pursuit of the regicide Bessus in Central Asia in 329 BC, the Sogdian chieftains Spitamenes and Dataphernes offered to surrender Bessus if Alexander sent a force to receive him.^[51][52][53] Alexander dispatched Ptolemy at the head of three hipparchies of companion cavalry, all mounted javelin-throwers, Philotas's infantry taxis, a chiliarchy of hypaspists, all Agrianian peltasts, and half of the archers.^[51] Ptolemy marched to Nautaca in four days, completing a journey that normally required ten days.^[51] When Spitamenes and Dataphernes hesitated to deliver Bessus, Ptolemy surrounded their camp, gave an ultimatum promising their safety upon Bessus's handover, and compelled compliance.^[51][52] According to Aristobulus, Spitamenes and Dataphernes delivered Bessus naked and bound in a wooden collar, and Ptolemy placed the prisoner by the road for Alexander and the army to inspect before sending him to his execution.^[52][54][55]

In 328 BC, during the operations to suppress the revolt in Sogdiana, Alexander divided his army into five columns, assigning one of them to Ptolemy.^[56][57][58] Curtius Rufus, by contrast, mentions only three divisions under Craterus, Hephaestion, and Coenus, which has led historians to suspect that Ptolemy's memoirs emphasized his own autonomous leadership.^[59][60] Around this time, Ptolemy reported the discovery of a petroleum spring to Alexander.^[61] In the winter of 328/327 BC, during a banquet at Maracanda, an intoxicated Alexander engaged in a violent quarrel with Cleitus the Black; Ptolemy attempted to defuse the confrontation by escorting Cleitus out of the banquet hall, but Cleitus returned through another door and Alexander killed him with a spear.^[62][63][64] In 327 BC, while serving night duty guarding Alexander's tent in Bactria, Ptolemy learned of the Pages' Conspiracy from Eurylochus, son of Arsaeas, and alerted the king, resulting in the execution of Hermolaus and the arrest of Callisthenes.^[65][66][67] In the spring of 327 BC, during the siege of the rock fortress of Chorienes (or Sisimithres), Ptolemy directed nocturnal siege and trenching works alongside Perdiccas and Leonnatus.^[68][69][70]

Ptolemy held significant field responsibilities during the Indian campaign beginning in late 327 BC. In the country of the Aspasioi, he personally pursued a local chieftain on horseback, dismounted when his horse struggled on steep terrain, and engaged the leader in hand-to-hand combat, killing him with a spear through the thigh and stripping his armor despite suffering a blow to his own breastplate.^[71][72][73] In a subsequent action near Arigaion, Alexander entrusted him with one-third of the army; when enemy forces descended into the plain, Ptolemy surrounded them while intentionally leaving an escape route open, routing them into the mountains.^[74][75] At the siege of the Rock of Aornos on the Indus in the spring of 326 BC, Ptolemy led a detachment of light-armed troops and Agrianian peltasts along a rough mountain trail, fortified a commanding ridge with a stockade and ditch, and signaled his position with a beacon fire, withstanding hostile counterattacks until Alexander could link up with him to complete the investment.^[76][77][78]

In the summer of 326 BC, during the crossing of the Hydaspes River prior to the Battle of the Hydaspes against King Porus, Ptolemy commanded the division that drew the Indian forces' attention and allowed Alexander to cross undetected.^[79][80][81] During the siege of Sangala against the Cathaeans, Alexander placed Ptolemy in charge of blocking the enemy breakout point; Ptolemy barricaded the paths with abandoned wagons and drove the breakout force back into the city.^[82][83] In the autumn of 326 BC, he was named a trierarch of the fleet built on the Hydaspes.^[84] During operations down the Indus in 325 BC, he commanded one-third of the forces and captured numerous settlements.^[85][86] Near the town of Harmatelia, Ptolemy was wounded by a poisoned arrow; according to ancient accounts, Alexander stayed at his bedside and discovered an herbal antidote revealed in a dream, saving his life.^[87][88][89] Although later writers like Cleitarchus and Timagenes claimed that Ptolemy earned his title Soter by rescuing Alexander when the king was wounded during the siege of the Mallian city, Ptolemy stated in his own memoirs that he was absent commanding separate operations elsewhere at that time.^[90][91][92]

During the march back through the desert regions of Gedrosia, Ptolemy commanded one of the three principal parts of the Macedonian army, the one that advanced along the coast.^[93][94] In early 324 BC, Alexander tasked him with overseeing the public self-immolation of the Indian sage Calanus at Pasargadae.^[95][96] At the mass weddings of Susa in 324 BC, Ptolemy was awarded a gold crown for distinguished military service and, at Alexander's command, married the Persian noblewoman Artakama, daughter of Artabazus II of Phrygia.^[97][98][99] In the winter of 324/323 BC, he commanded one of the independent army groups operating against the Cossaeans in the Zagros mountains, Alexander's final campaign.^{[96][100][101]} In late May 323 BC, Ptolemy attended the banquet hosted by Medius of Larissa in Babylon where Alexander fell ill before dying on 10 or 11 June 323 BC.^[102][103]

Satrap of Egypt

Following Alexander's death in Babylon, the leading generals debated the governance of the empire. Ptolemy argued against recognizing any of the proposed heirs, opposing Philip III Arrhidaeus on grounds of mental incapacity, Heracles of Macedon as illegitimate, and the unborn child of Roxana as of non-Macedonian descent.^{[96][104][105]} He proposed that, instead of deciding who would succeed Alexander, a council be formed in which all members would have equal power.^[105] According to one account, he also proposed that the deliberations be held around Alexander's throne and royal insignia.^[106] When the compromise at Babylon established the joint reign of Philip III Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV under Perdiccas as imperial regent (chiliarch), Ptolemy secured appointment as satrap of Egypt.^{[107][108][109]} Cleomenes, the former financial administrator of the province, became hyparchos and was to keep control of the finances.^[108][110] Cleomenes had built up a treasury of 8,000 talents, a fortune gathered through grain speculation.^{[111][112][113]} Ptolemy arrived in Egypt in the autumn of 323 BC and established his initial administrative base at Memphis.^{[114][115][116]}

Ptolemy moved to eliminate Cleomenes, who had maintained independent authority and commanded at least 4,000 mercenaries in Memphis.^{[115][117][118]} Accusing Cleomenes of spying on behalf of Perdiccas, Ptolemy had him put to death, taking possession of his eight-thousand-talent treasury.^[117][119] According to Lucian, the Knidian military engineer Sostratus aided Ptolemy's capture of Memphis by diverting river waters to force the city's surrender without a formal siege.^[120] Ptolemy used Cleomenes's accumulated funds to recruit Greek mercenaries and build naval assets.^[111][121] To win the loyalty of the Egyptian population and priesthood, he contributed fifty talents of silver for the burial ceremonies of the sacred Apis bull and ordered the restoration of temples in Karnak and Luxor in the names of kings Philip and Alexander.^[122][123]

In 322 BC, civil strife erupted in Cyrenaica following the arrival of the Spartan condottiere Thibron and his mercenary force.^[124][125] Factions in Cyrene expelled wealthy citizens, who appealed to Ptolemy for assistance.^[124][125] Ptolemy dispatched a fleet and land army under Ophellas, while a detachment under Epikydes of Olynthus secured Teuchira.^[124][126] Ophellas defeated the combined forces of Thibron and the Cyrenaean faction, and Thibron was captured and executed.^[124][127] Ptolemy arrived with the main Egyptian army to complete the submission of Cyrene, incorporating Cyrenaica into his territory under Ophellas's local administration.^{[110][128][129]} Papyrological records show that numerous Cyrenaeans subsequently settled as military colonists in the Fayum and Upper Egypt.^[129][130]

By Macedonian royal custom, burying a predecessor established a legal and symbolic claim to the royal succession.^[131][132] On his deathbed, Alexander had requested burial at the Temple of Ammon in Siwa, but Perdiccas ordered the funeral cortege to transport the body to the royal cemetery at Aigai in Macedonia.^{[131][132][133]} In late 322 or early 321 BC, the grand funeral procession managed by Arrhidaeus arrived in Syria.^[133][134] Ptolemy marched into Syria with a strong military escort, met Arrhidaeus, and persuaded him to divert the cortege to Egypt.^[133][134] The king's body was initially entombed at Memphis, remaining there for several decades until it was transferred to a monumental tomb complex (the Sema) in Alexandria.^{[134][135][136]} Ptolemy instituted a royal cult with dedicated priests chosen from the Macedonian aristocracy, making Alexander the divine patron of the Ptolemaic state.^[137][138]

The diversion of Alexander's body and the execution of Cleomenes prompted Perdiccas to prepare an invasion of Egypt in the spring of 321 BC, leaving Eumenes in Asia Minor to confront Craterus and Antipater.^{[133][139][140]} Perdiccas advanced with the royal army and the kings Philip III and Alexander IV toward Pelusium.^[141][142] Ptolemy fortified the Nile branches and garrisoned Camel Rampart (Kamilon Teichos).^[133][142] During Perdiccas's assault on the fort, Ptolemy personally blinded a war elephant with a pike from the ramparts and defended the position.^[133] Perdiccas subsequently attempted a night crossing of the Nile near Memphis, but the rising river currents swept away more than 2,000 soldiers, many of whom drowned or were eaten by crocodiles.^[133][143] In July 321 BC, disaffected officers led by Peithon, Antigenes, and Seleucus assassinated Perdiccas in his tent.^{[133][141][143]} Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile to supply the starving army that had been his enemy the day before.^[144][145] With his gold and the food he provided, he won the favor of the royal army.^{[133][141][144][146]} Offered the imperial regency, Ptolemy declined, instead nominating Peithon and Arrhidaeus.^{[133][141][144]} At the Partition of Triparadisus in northern Syria in the autumn of 321 BC, Antipater was confirmed as regent, and Ptolemy's possession of Egypt and Cyrenaica was reaffirmed.^{[147][148][149]} Ptolemy solidified an alliance with Antipater by marrying his daughter Eurydice.^{[148][149][150]}

In the late summer of 320 BC, Ptolemy sought to secure Coele-Syria and the Phoenician ports as forward naval bases for future operations against Cyprus.^{[146][151][152]} After satrap Laomedon of Mytilene rejected an offer to sell control of the Phoenician coastline, Ptolemy dispatched an army under Nicanor.^{[151][153][154]} Nicanor defeated Laomedon, captured him, and sent him in chains to Egypt, establishing Ptolemaic garrisons throughout Syria and Phoenicia.^{[152][153][154]} According to Flavius Josephus, Ptolemy entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath under the pretext of offering sacrifice and seized the city without resistance, relocating numerous Jewish prisoners and settlers to Egypt, where he subsequently recruited Jewish soldiers into his garrisons on equal terms with Macedonians.^[155][156]

Wars of the Diadochi

The death of Antipater in 319 BC ignited the Second War of the Diadochi. Ptolemy allied with Cassander and Antigonus Monophthalmus against the new regent Polyperchon and Eumenes of Cardia.^[154][157] In 318 BC, Ptolemy brought an Egyptian fleet to Cilicia to operate against Eumenes, but achieved limited results; Eumenes briefly threatened Phoenicia before marching into the upper Asian satrapies.^[157][158] Antigonus defeated Eumenes in 316 BC, executed Peithon, and removed Peucestas from Persis, claiming authority over all of Asia.^[159][160] In 315 BC, Seleucus fled Babylonia to Egypt, warning Ptolemy of Antigonus's ambitions to reunite the entire empire under his personal rule.^[159][160] Ptolemy sent embassies to Cassander and Lysimachus, creating a four-power coalition that delivered an ultimatum demanding Antigonus divide his conquered provinces and financial treasury.^[159][161] When Antigonus refused, the Third War of the Diadochi began in 315 BC.^[161][162]

In 315 BC, Antigonus invaded Syria, retook Phoenicia, and laid siege to Tyre, which was held by a Ptolemaic garrison.^[163][164] Antigonus also captured Joppa and Gaza, conscripting the captured Ptolemaic soldiers into his ranks.^[164][165] Because Ptolemy retained the Phoenician fleet and maintained command of the sea, Antigonus commissioned Phoenician dynasts and Syrian governors to build 500 ships.^[163] In response, Ptolemy sent his brother Menelaus and Seleucus to Cyprus with a fleet to reinforce King Nicocreon of Salamis and other allied Cypriot dynasts in Soloi, Paphos, and Chytroi, while besieging Kition, Keryneia, and Lapithos.^[166][167] He dispatched fifty ships under Polycleitus to the Peloponnese to aid Cassander and recruited an Athenian named Myrmidon with mercenaries to assist Asander in Caria.^[166][167] Polycleitus laid an ambush at Aphrodisias in Cilicia, capturing the Antigonid admiral Theodotus, his entire fleet, and the land commander Perilaus.^[167][168] Tyre fell to Antigonus in 314 BC after a fifteen-month siege, giving Antigonus control of Phoenicia.^[167][169]

In the summer of 313 BC, Cyrene revolted against Ptolemaic rule and besieged the Egyptian garrison in the citadel.^[170][171] Cyrenaean rebels murdered ambassadors sent from Alexandria to negotiate.^[170] Ptolemy dispatched general Agis with an army and Epaenetus with a fleet; Agis stormed Cyrene, executed the rebellion's leaders, disarmed the citizens, and restored Ptolemaic control, though Ophellas soon reasserted independent authority over the territory.^[170][171] Ptolemy then crossed personally to Cyprus in 313 BC to complete the island's pacification.^[170] Discovering that King Pumayyaton (Pygmalion) of Kition was negotiating with Antigonus, Ptolemy had him executed.^[170][171] He also arrested Praxippus of Lapithos and Keryneia, destroyed the city of Marion, and relocated its inhabitants to Paphos, appointing Nicocreon as supreme strategos of Cyprus.^[170][171] Ptolemy then sailed with his fleet to Upper Syria, plundering Poseideion and Potamoi Karon, before striking into Cilicia, sacking Mallus, selling its captives into slavery, and returning to Cyprus before Demetrius could arrive with reinforcements.^[170][172]

In 312 BC, Ptolemy and Seleucus assembled an army of 18,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry at Pelusium, crossed the desert, and confronted Demetrius near Gaza.^[173][174] Demetrius fielded 10,000 mercenaries, 2,000 Macedonians, 500 Lycians and Pamphylians, 400 Persian missile troops, 4,400 to 5,000 cavalry, and 43 war elephants.^[175][176] Demetrius positioned his strongest cavalry and elephants on his left wing, ordering his right wing under Andronicus to refuse engagement.^[177][178] Ptolemy and Seleucus adjusted their battle array, reinforcing their own right wing to meet the main charge.^[179][180] When Demetrius sent his war elephants forward, they were disrupted by spiked iron caltrops, while archers and slingers shot down the mahouts and captured the animals.^[181][182] Demetrius's cavalry fled, and the entire army collapsed.^[182][183] Demetrius lost 500 dead, including his commanders Peithon and Boeotus, and roughly 8,000 men were captured, whom Ptolemy distributed as settlers across the nomes of Egypt.^[184][185] Ptolemy captured Gaza and returned Demetrius's personal baggage and servants without ransom in recognition of his bravery.^[186][187] Ptolemy provided Seleucus with 1,000 infantry and 200 cavalry, enabling Seleucus to march to Babylon, recover his satrapy, and found the Seleucid Empire.^[188][189]

Ptolemy reoccupied Phoenicia and Coele-Syria following the victory at Gaza.^[190][191] He dispatched his general Cilles with an army to expel Demetrius from Upper Syria, but Demetrius surprised Cilles's camp at Myus, capturing the general and his entire command.^[192] When Antigonus crossed the Taurus Mountains with his main army to join Demetrius, Ptolemy's council advised against risking an open engagement far from Egypt.^[192] Ptolemy dismantled the fortifications of Acre, Joppa, Samaria, and Gaza, evacuated all transportable booty, and retreated to the Nile.^[191][192] In the autumn of 311 BC, the belligerents concluded the Peace of the Dynasts.^[135][191] The treaty recognized Cassander as general of Europe until Alexander IV came of age, confirmed Lysimachus in Thrace and Ptolemy in Egypt, Libya, and adjacent Arabian territories, and recognized Antigonus as master of Asia, while proclaiming the freedom of Greek cities.^[135] Shortly after the conclusion of peace, Cassander ordered the secret assassination of the thirteen-year-old king Alexander IV and his mother Roxana, leaving Ptolemy and the other satraps without a legitimate sovereign.^[128][193] Despite the king's death, Egyptian administrative papyri and official coinage continued to date by the regnal years of Alexander IV until approximately 305/304 BC.^[193][194]

Ptolemy restarted hostilities in 310 BC on the pretext that Antigonus had failed to evacuate garrisons from Greek cities in Asia Minor.^[195][196] He sent a fleet under Leonidas to conquer coastal cities in Rough Cilicia, but Demetrius drove the Ptolemaic forces back.^[196][197] In 309 BC, Ptolemy personally commanded a naval expedition to Lycia, capturing Phaselis and storming Xanthos.^{[128][196][198]} Advancing into Caria, he took Caunus, Iasos, and Myndus, but his siege of Halicarnassus was relieved by Demetrius.^{[128][196][198]} Ptolemy wintered on the island of Cos, where his wife Berenice gave birth to the future Ptolemy II.^{[198][199][200]} While on Cos, Antigonus's nephew Ptolemy, who had defected from his uncle, joined him; when the younger Ptolemy began attempting to subvert Egyptian officers, Ptolemy arrested him, forced him to drink hemlock, and incorporated his troops into the Egyptian army.^[198][200] In 308 BC, Ptolemy sailed with a fleet to the Peloponnese, expelled the Macedonian garrison from Andros, secured an alliance with Cratesipolis, and garrisoned Corinth, Sicyon, and Megara under his general Cleonidas.^{[128][201][202]} When the Peloponnesian cities failed to provide promised supplies and funding, Ptolemy concluded an agreement with Cassander and returned to Egypt.^[201][202] Meanwhile, Ptolemy tried to establish contact with Cleopatra, sister of Alexander the Great, who was then in Sardis, with a view to marrying her, but Antigonus discovered the plan and had her killed.^[201][202]

In Cyrenaica, Ophellas allied with Agathocles of Syracuse in 308 BC to attack Carthage, marching his army across the North African desert.^[107] Outside Carthage, Agathocles betrayed and murdered Ophellas, incorporating the Cyrenaean soldiers into his own army.^[107] Taking advantage of the absence of troops in Cyrenaica, Ptolemy sent his stepson Magas, who returned the province to Egyptian rule without difficulty and was made governor of Cyrene.^{[107][203][204][205]} In Cyprus, relations had deteriorated between Ptolemaic commanders and local dynasts; in 310/309 BC, after King Nicocles of Paphos was accused of secret negotiations with Antigonus, Ptolemy's brother Menelaus surrounded the palace at Paphos and forced Nicocles to commit suicide.^[206][207]

In the spring of 306 BC, Demetrius landed on Cyprus with 15,000 infantry, 400 cavalry, and a substantial fleet, establishing a fortified camp at Karpassia and defeating Menelaus in an open battle outside Salamis, forcing him into the city with the loss of 1,000 killed and 3,000 captured.^{[208][209][210]} Ptolemy sailed from Alexandria to relieve Salamis with 140 large warships (quadriremes and quinqueremes) and over 200 transport ships carrying 10,000 infantry, while requesting Menelaus to sortie from Salamis harbor with his 60 ships during the engagement.^[211][212] Demetrius detailed Antisthenes with 10 penters to block the narrow harbor mouth, keeping Menelaus's squadron penned inside, and engaged Ptolemy with 108 warships in the open sea.^[213][214] In the ensuing naval Battle of Salamis, Demetrius broke Ptolemy's right wing, and although Ptolemy achieved local success on his own wing, the general collapse of his fleet forced him to withdraw to Kition with only 8 ships.^{[128][215][216][217]} Demetrius captured 40 intact and 80 damaged warships, along with 100 transports carrying 8,000 soldiers, as well as Ptolemy's son Leontiscus and brother Menelaus.^[216][218] Demetrius magnanimously released Menelaus, Leontiscus, and Ptolemy's friends without ransom, but Cyprus passed entirely under Antigonid control.^[128][219]

Following his victory at Salamis, Antigonus proclaimed himself and Demetrius kings in 306 BC.^[205][220] In the autumn of 306 BC, Antigonus attempted to invade Egypt with an army of 80,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 83 war elephants, supported by Demetrius with 150 warships and 100 transports.^[221][222] Severe storms wrecked many of Demetrius's ships near Mount Casius, while Egyptian shore batteries and catapults repulsed attempted landings at the Nile branches.^[223] Ptolemy offered rewards to Antigonid deserters, paying two minas to common soldiers and a talent to officers, prompting widespread defections.^[223][224] Facing supply shortages, flooded delta terrain, and troop desertions, Antigonus broke off the campaign and withdrew to Syria.^[223]

King and Pharaoh

Following the repulsion of Antigonus's invasion, Ptolemy proclaimed himself king (basileus) at some point between late 305 and late 304 BC, following the example of Antigonus and Demetrius, as did Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus.^{[220][225][226]} Demotic papyri, the Parian Marble, and the Alexandrian Royal Canon date the start of his official reign as king to Thoth (November) 305 BC, though retrospective official documents calculated his regnal years from the death of Alexander in 324/323 BC.^{[227][228][229]} Whether Ptolemy underwent a formal pharaonic coronation ceremony remains unrecorded in surviving sources, but he adopted traditional Egyptian royal titulary in hieroglyphic inscriptions, styling himself Horus 'Werpehti Nesuqeni' ('Great of Strength, the Brave King'), Nebty 'Itjiemsekhem Heqatjel' ('Mighty Ruler'), and Nesut-Bity 'Setepenre Meryamun' ('Chosen of Ra, Beloved of Amun').^{[230][231][232][233][234][235]} Unlike Antigonus, Ptolemy restricted his royal claims to his own territorial dominion rather than asserting authority over the entire former empire of Alexander.^[236]

In 305–304 BC, Demetrius besieged Rhodes with 40,000 troops and naval siege engines to force the island into an Antigonid alliance.^[237] Rhodes remained loyal to its trade relationship with Ptolemy, who sent convoys of grain, military supplies, and mercenary reinforcements that successfully broke Demetrius's blockade.^[238][239] Demetrius gave up his attempt to take the city.^[5] In gratitude for his assistance, the Rhodians voted Ptolemy divine honors, dedicated an altar to him, and conferred upon him the cult title Soter ('Savior').^{[237][238][240]} Although Pausanias records the award of the epithet at this time, modern numismatic evidence shows that the title Soter first appeared on official Ptolemaic coinage during the reign of his son Ptolemy II in 263 BC.^[5][241]

In 302 BC, Cassander, Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy renewed their coalition to confront Antigonus.^{[205][242][243]} Ptolemy invaded Coele-Syria for a third time, capturing several cities while Antigonus marched into Asia Minor against Lysimachus.^{[205][244][245]} Upon receiving a false report that Antigonus had crushed Lysimachus, Ptolemy evacuated his forces and retreated to Egypt.^[205][244] When authentic news arrived that Lysimachus and Seleucus had defeated and killed Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, Ptolemy reoccupied Coele-Syria and Phoenicia for a fourth time.^{[205][245][246]} Because Ptolemy had abandoned the campaign before Ipsus, the victorious kings assigned all of Syria to Seleucus.^[205][246] When Seleucus advanced to claim the region, Ptolemy refused to surrender southern Syria, arguing that he had contributed to the coalition.^[245][247] According to Diodorus, Seleucus said that for the sake of friendship he would not quarrel over Coele-Syria for the present; he did not recognize the Ptolemaic claim, and the territorial dispute led to six Syrian Wars over the following century.^{[205][246][247]}

Ptolemy maintained control of southern Syria, establishing a frontier between Calamus and Tripoli along the Phoenician coast, with the inland boundary running between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, while Damascus remained Seleucid.^[248] Coele-Syria provided a defensive glacis protecting Egypt's eastern approaches and secured essential supplies of Lebanese cedar for Ptolemaic naval construction.^[248][249] Ptolemy also expanded his naval presence across the eastern Mediterranean.^[250] In 295–294 BC, taking advantage of Demetrius's campaigns in mainland Greece, Ptolemy invaded Cyprus with a fleet and captured the island, besieging Demetrius's wife Phila in Salamis until she surrendered.^[225][251] Ptolemy treated Phila and her children with honors and sent them to Demetrius in Macedonia with gifts, permanently incorporating Cyprus into the Ptolemaic Kingdom.^[225]

Ptolemy pursued an active dynastic marriage policy to secure regional alliances and maritime dominance.^{[149][252][253]} Around 300–298 BC, he married his daughter Arsinoe II to Lysimachus of Thrace, while Lysimachus's daughter Arsinoe I was betrothed to Ptolemy's son Ptolemy II.^[225][254] He married his daughter Lysandra first to Alexander V of Macedon and later to Lysimachus's son Agathocles.^{[225][255][256]} Another daughter, Ptolemais, was betrothed to Demetrius Poliorketes around 300 BC and married him at Miletus in 296 BC.^[225][257] His stepdaughter Antigone, daughter of Berenice by her first marriage, was given in marriage to King Pyrrhus of Epirus, whom Ptolemy financed and supported with an army to recover his throne.^[258] Another stepdaughter, Theoxena, married Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, around 300 BC.^[256][259] In 288 BC, Ptolemy joined Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Pyrrhus against Demetrius, dispatching a fleet to the Aegean Sea; by 287 BC, Ptolemy established a protectorate over the Nesiotic League (League of the Islanders), securing naval supremacy in the Aegean and maintaining close ties with Miletus.^{[225][260][261]}

Domestic governance and reforms

Ptolemy established a dual administrative apparatus that combined traditional Egyptian structures with Greek bureaucratic methods.^[262] Egypt was divided into administrative nomes, where Greek and Macedonian officials worked alongside native scribes and village chiefs to manage irrigation, taxation, and agricultural production.^[263][264] The Ptolemaic crown held direct ownership of approximately half of the agricultural land, leasing parcels to native tenant farmers while settling Greek and Macedonian military reservists on designated allotments (kleroi) to ensure military readiness.^{[263][264][265]} When Demetrius captured Ptolemaic troops on Cyprus in 306 BC, many chose repatriation to Egypt rather than defecting, having families and land holdings established there.^[266] The population of Egypt during this period is estimated at around 3 million.^[263][264]

Ptolemy maintained cordial relations with the Egyptian temple estates and the native priesthood, placing them under royal fiscal oversight while safeguarding their traditional revenues and temple lands from direct state taxation.^[267][268] In 311 BC, he issued the Satrap Stele (now preserved in the Cairo Museum), commemorating the restoration of land rights to the temple of Horus and Wadjet at Buto, which had previously been granted by Pharaoh Khabash.^[269][270] In the stele text, Ptolemy returned the territory of Patanut to Horus, lord of Pe and Buto, from that day forever, with all its villages, towns, inhabitants, fields, waters and cattle, as it had been given by King Khabash. In Upper Egypt, Ptolemy founded the Greek polis of Ptolemais Hermiou on the site of the ancient village of Psoi (near modern Sohag) to serve as the capital of Upper Egypt.^[271][272]

Ptolemy transformed Egypt's economy by instituting a closed monetary zone between 311 and 305 BC.^{[273][274][275]} Prior to this reform, the principal currency in Egypt was the Athenian silver tetradrachm (known as the 'owl') and its local Egyptian imitations, minted in the Nile Delta, Memphis, Elephantine, and the Kharga Oasis.^[273][274] Because silver was scarce in Egypt and had to be imported, Ptolemy reduced the weight of the silver drachma and gold stater to roughly 80 percent of the Attic standard around 305 BC, creating a closed economic sphere that mandated the exchange of foreign coins at Egyptian borders.^{[273][274][275]} Around 299 BC, he replaced the older gold stater of Alexander with coins bearing his own portrait on the obverse and an eagle on a thunderbolt on the reverse, adjusted to a standard of 14.25 grams.^[273][275] Around 294 BC, a specialized commission regulated the exchange rate of gold for silver, generating substantial revenue for the royal treasury.^[274][276]

Religious policy and the cult of Serapis

To integrate the Greek-Macedonian ruling class with the native Egyptian population, Ptolemy promoted the syncretic cult of Serapis.^[277] According to accounts by Plutarch and Tacitus, Ptolemy received a nocturnal vision commanding him to fetch a colossal statue of Pluto from Sinope on the Pontus; through the interpretation of the Athenian Eleusinian priest Timotheus and the Egyptian high priest Manetho of Sebennytos, the deity was identified as Sarapis.^[277] Serapis was a Hellenized form of Osiris-Apis (Usir-Hape), the deceased sacred Apis bull worshipped at Saqqara.^[277][278] The god incorporated the attributes of Zeus, Hades, Dionysus, and Asclepius, presenting a divine figure accessible to both Greek and Egyptian worshippers.^{[277][278][279]} A large temple (the Serapeum) was erected in the Rhakotis district of Alexandria, and the cult spread rapidly across the Mediterranean, appearing in Halicarnassus in an inscription dated to 308–306 BC.^{[6][277][279]}

Ptolemy established a formal royal dynastic cult centered on the deified Alexander the Great.^[137][138] Distinct from the municipal cult honoring Alexander as the founder of Alexandria, the state cult recognized Alexander as the divine patron of the kingdom, celebrated by state-appointed priests drawn from the highest ranks of Macedonian aristocracy.^[137][138] Ptolemy associated his own family with this royal cult, establishing the ideological basis for the divine ruler cults that characterized subsequent Ptolemaic governance.^[137][280]

Cultural patronage and Alexandria

Ptolemy completed the urban development of Alexandria, transforming the city into the administrative capital and commercial center of the eastern Mediterranean.^[281] The city was laid out in a grid pattern by the Rhodian architect Dinocrates, divided into distinct quarters for Macedonians and Greeks (Brucheum), native Egyptians (Rhakotis), and Jews.^[281][282] Beginning around 297 BC, the architect Sostratus of Knidos constructed the Pharos Lighthouse on Pharos Island, connected to the mainland by the Heptastadion mole; standing approximately 120 to 134 meters tall with an open fire and reflective mirrors, it guided maritime traffic and was celebrated as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.^{[281][283][284]}

On the advice of the exiled Athenian statesman Demetrius of Phalerum, Ptolemy founded the Museum (Mouseion) and the Library of Alexandria within the royal palace district around 284 BC, patterned after Aristotle's Lyceum.^{[6][281][282][285]} The Museum operated as a royal research institute with dining halls, lecture rooms, and living quarters for scholars, while the Library sought to collect all available written knowledge, accumulating hundreds of thousands of papyrus scrolls.^{[6][282][286]} Among the scholars invited to the court were the physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos, the philosophers Theophrastus and Strato of Lampsacus, and the grammarians Philitas of Cos and Zenodotus of Ephesus.^{[281][286][287]} The mathematician Euclid also taught in Alexandria under Ptolemy's patronage; according to Proclus, when the king asked if there was a simpler way to learn geometry, Euclid famously replied that there was no royal road to geometry.^{[288][289][290]}

Work as a historian

In his later years, Ptolemy wrote a personal eyewitness history of Alexander the Great's campaigns.^[291][292] The original text has not survived, but in the second century AD it served as the primary authority, alongside the work of Aristobulus of Cassandreia, for Arrian of Nicomedia's Anabasis of Alexander, which preserves large sections in paraphrase and précis.^{[292][293][294]} Arrian cited Ptolemy's account as particularly trustworthy because Ptolemy accompanied Alexander throughout the expedition and, as a reigning king, would find deceit more dishonorable than any private author.^[295][296]

Ptolemy's history was long praised by classical scholars for its sober, straightforward style and factual military focus, avoiding romantic sensationalism.^[205][294] Modern scholarship has taken a more critical view of the work's neutrality. R. M. Errington argued that the history was characterized by subtle bias and self-aggrandizement, systematically diminishing the contributions of rivals such as Perdiccas and Antigonus while emphasizing Ptolemy's personal achievements.^[297][298] For example, Arrian's narrative of the capture of Thebes in 335 BC, explicitly drawn from Ptolemy, presents Perdiccas in an undisciplined light compared to parallel accounts in Diodorus Siculus.^[297] Conversely, Joseph Roisman has argued that allegations of intentional distortion by Ptolemy have been overstated by modern critics, maintaining that the work provided an authentic soldier's account focused primarily on operational and military maneuvers.^[299][300]

Marriages, family, and succession

During Alexander's lifetime, Ptolemy maintained a long-term relationship with the Athenian courtesan (hetaira) Thaïs, who accompanied the army across Asia.^[301] According to Cleitarchus, Thaïs instigated the burning of Persepolis in 330 BC.^[302] Ptolemy had three children with Thaïs: two sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and a daughter, Eirene, who married King Eunostos of Soloi on Cyprus.^[301][303] Leontiscus served as a Ptolemaic military officer on Cyprus and was captured by Demetrius at Salamis in 306 BC before being repatriated.^[216][304] In 324 BC, at the mass weddings in Susa, Ptolemy married the Persian noblewoman Artakama, daughter of Artabazus II; she is not mentioned in surviving records following Alexander's death, and Ptolemy appears to have set her aside upon his arrival in Egypt.^{[301][305][306][307]}

Around 322/321 BC, following the Partition of Triparadisus, Ptolemy contracted a political alliance with Antipater, marrying his daughter Eurydice.^{[148][149][301][305]} Eurydice bore him several children before she was repudiated: three sons, Ptolemy Keraunos (later king of Macedon from 281 to 279 BC), Meleager (who ruled Macedon for two months in 279 BC), and an unnamed third son who was later executed by Ptolemy II for instigating rebellion on Cyprus, as well as two daughters, Lysandra and Ptolemais.^[255][308] Lysandra married Alexander V of Macedon and subsequently Agathocles, son of Lysimachus, while Ptolemais married Demetrius Poliorketes at Miletus in 296 BC.^{[225][255][256]}

Between 317 and 316 BC, Ptolemy married Berenice I, a widowed Macedonian noblewoman who had accompanied Eurydice to Egypt as her lady-in-waiting.^{[255][309][310]} Berenice had three children from her previous marriage to a Macedonian nobleman named Philip: Magas (later ruler of Cyrene), Antigone (who married Pyrrhus of Epirus), and Theoxena (who married Agathocles of Syracuse).^{[107][255][259]} Ptolemy and Berenice had three children together: Arsinoe II (who married successively Lysimachus, Ptolemy Keraunos, and her full brother Ptolemy II), Philotera, and Ptolemy II Philadelphus.^[255][309] Plutarch observed that Berenice became the most influential of Ptolemy's consorts, using her standing to advance her own children at court.^{[311][312][313]}

In his final years, a succession dispute arose between the faction supporting Eurydice's eldest son, Ptolemy Keraunos, backed by Demetrius of Phalerum, and the faction favoring Berenice's son, Ptolemy II.^{[313][314][315]} Ptolemy chose the younger prince, and in 285 BC he abdicated the throne and proclaimed Ptolemy II his co-regent, explaining his decision before a public assembly in Alexandria.^{[316][317][318]} Ptolemy Keraunos fled Egypt for the court of Lysimachus in Thrace.^[316][318] According to Justin, the elderly Ptolemy lived as a private citizen among his son's royal attendants, remarking that it was better to be the father of a king than to possess any kingdom oneself.^[317] Ptolemy died in January 282 BC at the age of 84.^{[17][316][319]} He was the only major general of Alexander's generation to die peacefully of natural causes in his own bed.^[320] Ptolemy II instituted the penteteric Ptolemaieia festival in his father's honor and deified him alongside Berenice as the Savior Gods (Theoi Soteres).^[7][321]

In modern culture

The Greek town of Ptolemaida was renamed in 1927 in honor of Ptolemy and his daughter Ptolemais, commemorating the region of Eordaea from which his family originated.^[322] Ptolemy has appeared in numerous literary and cinematic representations of Alexander the Great. He is portrayed by Anthony Hopkins as the aged narrator and by Elliot Cowan as a young officer in Oliver Stone's 2004 historical epic Alexander. He was earlier played by Virgilio Teixeira in Robert Rossen's 1956 film Alexander the Great, and is portrayed by Dino Kelly in the 2024 Netflix docuseries Alexander: The Making of a God.^[323] In historical fiction, he is featured in Mary Renault's Alexander Trilogy (Fire from Heaven, The Persian Boy, and Funeral Games), as well as novels by L. Sprague de Camp and Duncan Sprott. In popular media, he appears as an Archer Class Servant in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order.

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7. Das Alexandergrab wurde erst unter Ptolemaios II. nach Alexandria verlegt.
8. Heckel, 2021, 1010. Ptolemy, p. 428. (Heckel W. Who's Who in the Age of Alexander and his Successors. From Chaironea to Ipsos (338—301 BC) (англ.). — Barnsley: Greenhill Books, 2021. — 554 p. — ISBN 978-1-78438-648-1.)
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13. Pausanias, Helládos Periēgēsis 1,6,2 (zweifelnd); Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni Macedonis 9,8,22 u. a.
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18. Bevan, 1927, p. 21. (Bevan E. R. Chapter II. Ptolemy I (Soter) // The House of Ptolemy. A History of Hellenistic Egypt under the Ptolemaic Dynasty (англ.). — London: Methuen&Co. Ltd., 1927. — P. 18—55.)
19. Heckel, 2016, p. 231. (Heckel W. Alexander’s Marshals. A study of the Makedonian aristocracy and the politics of military leadership (англ.). — 2nd. — London; New York: Routledge, 2016. — ISBN 978-1-138-93469-6.)
20. Heckel, 2018, p. 3. (Heckel W. Ptolemy: A Man of His Own Making // Ptolemy I Soter: A Self-Made Man (англ.) / Tim Howe. — Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2018. — P. 1—19. — ISBN 978-1-78925-043-5.)
21. "Ptolemaic Dynasty -- Ptolemy I root". www.instonebrewer.com. Retrieved 2025-07-17.
22. Worthington 2016, pp. 14-15. (Ian Worthington, Ptolemy I: King and Pharaoh of Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2016, ISBN 978-0-19-020234-7.)
23. Hellenistic Kingdoms 301 BCE, after the death of Alexander the Great [online]. Zurich: 2021. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
24. Hellenistic Kingdoms 301 BCE [online]. World History Encyclopedia. Dostupné online. (po anglicky)
25. Worthington 2016, p. 23. (Ian Worthington, Ptolemy I: King and Pharaoh of Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2016, ISBN 978-0-19-020234-7.)
26. Шахермайр, 1997, с. 95. (Шахермайр Ф. Александр Македонский. — Ростов-на-Дону: Феникс, 1997. — 576 с. — (Исторические силуэты). — ISBN 5-85880-313-Х.)
27. Plutarch, Alexander 10,1–4
28. Arriano, III, 6; Plutarco, Alessandro, X; Worthington 2016, p. 11. ((GRC) Arriano, Anabasis Alexandri.)
29. Arrian, Anabasis 3,6,5
30. Worthington 2016, pp. 23-24. (Ian Worthington, Ptolemy I: King and Pharaoh of Egypt, Oxford University Press, 2016, ISBN 978-0-19-020234-7.)
31. Арриан, 1962, III. 6. 5—6, с. 108. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
32. Плутарх, 1994, Александр 10. 1—3. (Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания в двух томах / Перевод С. П. Маркиша, обработка перевода для настоящего переиздания — С. С. Аверинцева, переработка комментария — М. Л. Гаспарова. — второе. — М.: Наука, 1994.)
33. Dies ist der älteste schriftliche Nachweis seiner Person außerhalb der erzählenden Chroniken. Auf dem erhaltenen Weiheepigramm nannte er sich Πτολεμαῖος Λαάγου Μακεδὼν Ptolemaíos Laágou Makedṑn. Siehe Albert Rehm, Peter Hermann: Inschriften von Milet / Teil 1. A. Inschriften n. 187–406 (Nachdruck aus den Bänden I 5–II 3), von Albert Rehm, mit einem Beitrag von Hermann Dessau. B. Nachträge und Übersetzungen zu den Inschriften n. 1–406 (= Milet. Band 6, Teil 1). De Gruyter, Berlin 1997, ISBN 3-11-014540-5, Nr. 244, S. 53. (online IMilet 244).
34. Arriano, I, 2; Strabone, VII, 3.8; Worthington 2016, p. 23. ((GRC) Arriano, Anabasis Alexandri.)
35. Arriano, I, 8; Diodoro Siculo, XVII, 9; Worthington 2016, p. 23. ((GRC) Arriano, Anabasis Alexandri.)
36. Ian Worthington. 《Ptolemy I: King and Pharaoh of Egypt》 第45頁
37. Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-631-19396-8.
38. Арриан, 1962, II. 11. 8, с. 89. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
39. Arrian, Anabasis 2,11,8
40. Grimal، Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell Books. ص. 382. ISBN:978-0-631-19396-8. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2021-10-28.
41. Grimal 1992, str. 382.
42. Арриан, 1962, III. 18. 9, с. 120. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
43. Heckel, 2021, 1010. Ptolemy, pp. 428—429. (Heckel W. Who's Who in the Age of Alexander and his Successors. From Chaironea to Ipsos (338—301 BC) (англ.). — Barnsley: Greenhill Books, 2021. — 554 p. — ISBN 978-1-78438-648-1.)
44. Waldemar Heckel.《Alexander's Marshals: A Study of the Makedonian Aristocracy and the Politics of Military Leadership》 第295頁
45. Athenaios 4,171b–c = Chares, FGrHist 125 F 1. Siehe dazu Andrew W. Collins: Alexander the Great and the Office of Edeatros. In: Historia. Band 61, 2012, S. 414–420.
46. Афиней. Пир мудрецов. Книга IV, 71 (171C) . Дата обращения: 1 февраля 2013. Архивировано 17 мая 2012 года.
47. Шахермайр, 1997, с. 296. (Шахермайр Ф. Александр Македонский. — Ростов-на-Дону: Феникс, 1997. — 576 с. — (Исторические силуэты). — ISBN 5-85880-313-Х.)
48. Aristobulos, FGrHist 139, F 50
49. Giustino, XIII, 4.10; Worthington 2016, p. 44. ((LA) Giustino, Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompeii Trogi.)
50. Heckel, 2018, p. 4. (Heckel W. Ptolemy: A Man of His Own Making // Ptolemy I Soter: A Self-Made Man (англ.) / Tim Howe. — Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2018. — P. 1—19. — ISBN 978-1-78925-043-5.)
51. Арриан, 1962, III. 29. 7, с. 130—131. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
52. Арриан, 1962, III. 30. 1—2, с. 131. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
53. 阿里安, 《亞歷山大遠征記》3.29
54. Arrian (1976). de Sélincourt, Aubrey (ed.). Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. III, 30. ISBN 978-0-14-044253-3.
55. Ptolemaios, FGrHist 138 F 14 = Arrian, Anabasis 3,29,7 ff.
56. Арриан, 1962, IV. 16. 2, с. 147. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
57. Arrian, Anabasis 4,16,2
58. Arriano, IV, 15-16. ((GRC) Arriano, Anabasis Alexandri.)
59. 庫爾蒂烏斯, 《亞歷山大大帝史》（Historiae Alexandri Magni）, 7.10
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61. Арриан, 1962, IV. 15. 7—8, с. 147. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
62. Арриан, 1962, IV. 8. 9, с. 140—141. (Арриан. Поход Александра / перевод с древнегреческого М. Е. Сергеенко. Ответственный редактор д. и. н. О. О. Крюгер. — М.—Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1962.)
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64. Arrian, Anabasis 4,8,9 (nach Aristobulos); Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni Macedonis 8,1,45-52 (etwas abweichend). – Die Kleitos-Episode hatte Ptolemaios in seinem eigenen Werk ignoriert.
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67. Arrian, Anabasis 4,13,7; Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni Macedonis 8,6,22
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69. Arrian, Anabasis 4,21,4
70. 庫爾蒂烏斯, 《亞歷山大大帝史》, 8.6
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72. Arrian, Anabasis 4,24,3 f.
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77. Arrian, Anabasis 4,29,1–6
78. Arriano, IV, 29-30. ((GRC) Arriano, Anabasis Alexandri.)
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215. Диодор Сицилийский, 1954, XX, 51, 2—3. (Diodorus of Sicily. Books XIX 66—110 and XX with an english translation by Russell M. Geer (англ.). — London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1954. — Vol. X. — (Loeb Classical Library).)
216. Плутарх, 1994, Деметрий 16. (Плутарх. Сравнительные жизнеописания в двух томах / Перевод С. П. Маркиша, обработка перевода для настоящего переиздания — С. С. Аверинцева, переработка комментария — М. Л. Гаспарова. — второе. — М.: Наука, 1994.)
217. 普魯塔克,《希臘羅馬名人傳:德米特里》16.2
218. Диодор Сицилийский, 1954, XX, 52, 6. (Diodorus of Sicily. Books XIX 66—110 and XX with an english translation by Russell M. Geer (англ.). — London: William Heinemann Ltd, 1954. — Vol. X. — (Loeb Classical Library).)
219. Юстин, 2005, XV, 2, 7. (Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «Historiae Philippicae» / перевод Деконского А. А. и Рижского М. И. под ред. М. Е. Грабарь-Пассек. Вст. статья К. К. Зельина. — СПб.: Издательство Санкт-Петербургского государственного университета, 2005. — 493 с. — ISBN 5-288-03708-6.)
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225. Плутарх. «Сравнительные жизнеописания. Деметрий»; 18 . Дата обращения: 5 февраля 2013. Архивировано 11 июля 2012 года.
226. E. Grzybek, "Du calendrier macédonien au calendrier ptolémaïque : problèmes de chronologie hellénistique", L'Antiquité Classique Année 1992 61
227. «Паросский мрамор». Паросская часть, 23 . Дата обращения: 7 февраля 2013. Архивировано 11 июля 2012 года.
228. Бивен Э. Династия Птолемеев. — С. 43—44, 48.
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232. Der sitzende König trägt neben dem Wedel noch zusätzlich einen Krummstab.
233. Das Zeichen auf Position drei und fünf ist jeweils senkrecht zu lesen.
234. Das erste und zweite Zeichen sind nicht in der regulären Gardiner-Liste, sondern in der Extended Library enthalten, weshalb hier keine Darstellung erfolgen kann. Hier blicken sich beide Götter an. Siehe dazu Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen. S. 235.
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238. Siege of Rhodes at Livius.org
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240. Павсаний. Описание Эллады. Книга I (Аттика). Глава VIII, 6 . Дата обращения: 10 октября 2012. Архивировано 25 августа 2012 года.
241. BEVAN, Edwin. A History of Egypt under the Ptolemaic dynasty. London : Methuen, 1914. Dostupné online. (po anglicky)
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243. 普魯塔克,《希臘羅馬名人傳:德米特里》25.1
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245. 狄奧多羅斯, 《歷史叢書》, 21.1
246. Полибий. Всеобщая история. Книга V, 67
247. Диодор Сицилийский. Историческая библиотека. Книга XXI (фрагменты), 1 (5) . Дата обращения: 7 февраля 2013. Архивировано 26 апреля 2012 года.
248. Бивен Э. Династия Птолемеев. — С. 51—52.
249. Will 2003, p. 170.
250. Will 2003, p. 87.
251. 普魯塔克,《希臘羅馬名人傳:德米特里》38.1
252. Марк Юниан Юстин. Эпитома сочинения Помпея Трога «История Филиппа». Книга XV, 4 (23—24) . Дата обращения: 2 сентября 2012. Архивировано 25 марта 2012 года.
253. Plutarco, Vidas Paralelas, Vida de Pirro, 4.4
254. Donnelly Carney 2013, pp. 18-22. (Elizabeth Donnelly Carney, Arsinoe of Egypt and Macedon: A Royal Life, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-971101-7.)
255. Clayman, Dee L. (2014). Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 9780195370881.
256. Павсаний. Описание Эллады. Книга I (Аттика). Глава IX, 7 . Дата обращения: 26 февраля 2013. Архивировано 25 августа 2012 года.
257. 普魯塔克,《希臘羅馬名人傳:皮洛士》5.1
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259. Fritz Geyer: Theoxene. Pauly-Wissowa, RE Bd. 5 A/2, Stuttgart 1934, Sp. 2255 f.; Werner Huss: Ägypten in hellenistischer Zeit, München 2001, S. 203 (Anm. 103).
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261. Ian Worthington. 《Ptolemy I: King and Pharaoh of Egypt》 第189頁
262. MANNING, J.G. Networks, Hierarchies, and Markets in the Ptolemaic Economy. [s.l.]: Oxford Scholarship, 2011. ISBN 978-0199587926. S. 298–3013. (anglicky)
263. Strooman, Rolf (2019). The Ptolemaic Sea Empire. Utrecht University.
264. The Economy of Ptolemaic Egypt [online]. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
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266. Бивен Э. Династия Птолемеев. — С. 55—58.
267. PEREIRA, Ronald. Between religion and politics: Greek-Egyptian identity in Ptolemaic Egypt (4th – 1st centuries B.C.). [s.l.]: Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2020. S. 8–35. (anglicky)
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270. Granite " Satrap Stela " of Ptolemy I [online]. Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale, 1904. S. pl.56. Dostupné online. (anglicky)
271. Chauveau, Michel (2000) Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society Under the Ptolemies Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, page 68 ISBN:0-8014-3597-8 نسخة محفوظة 12 يناير 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين
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276. Caneva, Stefano. Ptolemy I: Politics, Religion and the Transition to Hellenistic Egypt. OXBOW. p. 88-127. ISBN 978-1-78925-042-8.
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286. Lionel Casson, Libraries in the Ancient World, Yale University Press (2001), passim e s.v. ISBN 978-0-300-09721-4 (EN) ; consultato anche in trad. ital., Biblioteche del mondo antico, Sylvestre Bonnard (2003). ISBN 978-88-86842-56-3 (IT)
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292. Die Fragmente sind gesammelt bei Felix Jacoby: Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker. Nr. 138.
293. Bosworth, A. B. (1988). From Arrian to Alexander: Studies in Historical Interpretation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0198148630.
294. Zusammenfassend mit weiterer Literatur siehe Carlo Scardino: Die Alexanderhistoriker. In: Antonios Rengakos, Bernhard Zimmermann (Hrsg.): Handbuch der griechischen Literatur der Antike. Band 2. Beck, München 2014, S. 642f.
295. Anabasis, Prologue
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297. Errington, R. M. (1969-01-01). "Bias in Ptolemy's History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 19 (2): 233–242. doi:10.1017/S0009838800024642. JSTOR 637545. S2CID 170128227.
298. Errington, R. M. "Bias in Ptolemy's History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 19 (2): 233–242.
299. Roisman, Joseph (1984-01-01). "Ptolemy and His Rivals in His History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 34 (2): 373–385. doi:10.1017/S0009838800031001. JSTOR 638295. S2CID 163042651.
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304. Walter M. Ellis, Ptolemy of Egypt, Routledge, London, 1994, p. 15.
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306. Arrian, Anabasis 7,4,6; laut Plutarch, Eumenes 1,7 hieß Ptolemaios’ Gattin hingegen Apame.
307. 阿里安, 《亞歷山大遠征記》7.56
308. Павсаний. Описание Эллады. Книга I (Аттика). Глава VII, 1 . Дата обращения: 16 октября 2012. Архивировано 25 августа 2012 года.
309. Heckel, 2021, 293. Berenike, p. 130. (Heckel W. Who's Who in the Age of Alexander and his Successors. From Chaironea to Ipsos (338—301 BC) (англ.). — Barnsley: Greenhill Books, 2021. — 554 p. — ISBN 978-1-78438-648-1.)
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315. Бивен Э. Династия Птолемеев. — С. 72—73.
316. Ptolemy I at Livius.org
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318. Ian Worthington. 《Ptolemy I: King and Pharaoh of Egypt》 第214頁
319. Hölbl 2001, p. 14; Worthington 2016, p. 11. (Günther Hölbl, A History of the Ptolemaic Empire, Psychology Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-415-23489-4.)
320. Бивен Э. Династия Птолемеев. — С. 74.
321. LR IV 217 (IX). −156
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