United States Army Special Forces

Missions and Doctrine

The core missionset of the United States Army Special Forces contains five primary doctrinal missions: unconventional warfare, foreign internal defense, direct action, counterterrorism, and special reconnaissance.^[4][5] Unconventional warfare, the foundational mission of the branch, consists of activities conducted over extended periods to organize, train, equip, advise, and lead indigenous or surrogate guerrilla forces behind enemy lines or within occupied nations.^[9] Foreign internal defense involves organizing, advising, and training host-nation military, intelligence, and police forces to counter insurgency, lawlessness, and subversion, spanning from indirect advisory assistance to direct combat command.^[10][11] Several editions also classify counter-insurgency, information operations, counter-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and security force assistance among their primary doctrinal operational responsibilities.^[7][12][13]

Secondary missions assigned to Special Forces include combat search and rescue, counter-narcotics advisory operations, hostage rescue, humanitarian assistance, humanitarian demining, peacekeeping operations, and manhunts.^[11][14][15] While other components of the United States Special Operations Command or civil government agencies also specialize in these secondary tasks, Special Forces detachments are trained to execute them under austere and politically sensitive conditions.^[11][14] Personnel develop advanced regional cultural understanding, economic and political comprehension of their areas of responsibility, and fluency in regional languages.^[7][16][17]

To execute specialized direct action and crisis response operations, dedicated units were formed within each Special Forces Group.^[18][19][20] Originally known as the Commander's In-extremis Force, these elements were later redesignated as Crisis Response Forces, subsequently designated as Hard-Target Defeat companies, and renamed Critical Threats Advisory Companies.^{[18][20][21][22][23]} These companies maintain specialized qualifications in advanced reconnaissance, target analysis, and sniper operations, providing regional theater combatant commanders with rapid-strike, counterterrorism, and hostage rescue capabilities.^[18][20][24]

Special Forces maintain distinct doctrinal roles that separate them from other United States Army special operations units.^[20] While the 75th Ranger Regiment operates primarily as elite airborne light infantry conducting large-scale airfield seizures and overt raids, and the 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta focuses on classified counterterrorism and hostage rescue through invitation-only recruiting, Special Forces teams are uniquely structured to live and operate alongside local irregular forces, allied militias, and foreign armies in remote, denied, or hostile environments for months at a time without external logistical support.^[25][26]

History

United States Army Special Forces trace their historical lineage to several specialized units of the Second World War.^{[27][28][29][30]} These include the joint American-Canadian 1st Special Service Force, nicknamed the Devil's Brigade, which was formed in 1942 for deep reconnaissance and mountain fighting before disbanding at Menton, France, in December 1944.^[28][31] A second major lineage descends from the Office of Strategic Services, whose Operational Groups, Jedburgh Detachments, Maritime Unit, and Detachment 101 conducted guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and indigenous recruitment behind Axis lines in Europe and Asia.^[11][30] Other historical antecedents include the 6th Army Special Reconnaissance Unit, known as the Alamo Scouts, the Philippine guerrilla networks organized by Colonel Wendell Fertig and Lieutenant Colonel Russell Volckmann, and the 8240th Army Unit from the Korean War.^[29][32] Fertig and Volckmann used their wartime experiences in the Philippines to draft the foundational doctrine of unconventional warfare adopted by the Army.^[32][33]

In 1951, Major General Robert A. McClure, head of the Psychological Warfare Staff in the Pentagon and an OSS veteran, took the initiative to form the Special Forces; according to the author John Gresham, the Central Intelligence Agency had suffered disastrous failures in its covert behind-the-lines operations during the Korean War, after which the Department of Defense concluded that the military needed its own special operations component.^{[34][35][36][37]} McClure convinced the Joint Chiefs of Staff that the Army required its own military unconventional warfare force to organize resistance behind enemy lines in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion of Western Europe.^[36][38] McClure appointed former OSS officer Colonel Aaron Bank to lead the Special Operations Division of the Psychological Warfare Staff.^[34][37] On 19 June 1952, the 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) was officially activated at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, comprising 2,300 personnel, many of whom were Second World War veterans or Eastern European immigrants recruited under the Lodge Act.^[6][32][39]

In September 1953, following the uprising of 17 June 1953 in East Germany, the deployed cadre of the 10th Special Forces Group was dispatched to Bad Tölz in West Germany to prepare unconventional warfare networks in Europe.^[32][40][41] The portion of the unit remaining at Fort Bragg was designated the 77th Special Forces Group.^[32][40] In 1956, a covert cell known as the 7781st Army Unit, later the 39th Special Forces Operational Detachment and subsequently Detachment A, was established in West Berlin.^[42][43] Operating undercover in civilian clothes because Allied agreements prohibited elite combat formations in the divided city, Detachment A prepared stay-behind guerrilla resistance, demolition, and sabotage plans in the event of a Soviet invasion.^[42][43][44] In the summer of 1960, members of the 10th SFG deployed to the newly independent Republic of the Congo, where they evacuated 239 American and European civilians to Leopoldville in nine days without sustaining a single casualty.^[45]

The expansion into Asia began in 1957 when detachments from the 77th SFG established the 1st Special Forces Group at Torii Station, Okinawa.^[46][47] In 1958, the 1st SFG deployed Mobile Training Teams to South Korea to train the Republic of Korea Army in underwater infiltration, sabotage, mountain operations, winter warfare, and crowd control, an advisory presence that persisted until 1980.^[48] Mobile teams also operated in Thailand, Taiwan, and the Philippines, where advisors assisted against the Hukbalahap guerrilla movement.^[49][50]

President John F. Kennedy placed great emphasis on counter-insurgency and unconventional warfare after studying the guerrilla doctrines of Mao Zedong, Che Guevara, and Vo Nguyen Giap.^[51] Overcoming skepticism from conventional military leadership who were wary because the US military had fought earlier wars with massed manpower and superior firepower, Kennedy visited Fort Bragg on 12 October 1961, meeting with Center Commander Brigadier General William P. Yarborough.^{[51][52][53][54]} Kennedy formally authorized the green beret as the exclusive headgear of Army Special Forces, expanded the Special Warfare Center, and oversaw the activation of additional units.^{[52][53][55][56]} The 77th SFG was reorganized as the 7th SFG in May 1960; the 5th SFG was activated on 21 September 1961; the 8th SFG at Fort Gulick, Panama, on 1 April 1963; the 6th SFG on 1 May 1963; and the 3rd SFG on 5 December 1963.^{[32][47][57][58]}

Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War

In 1956, the 14th Special Forces Operational Detachment of the 77th SFG became the first active unit in Vietnam..^[36] On 21 October 1956, Captain Harry Griffith Cramer Jr. became the first official American casualty in Vietnam..^[36][59] Between 1959 and 1962, Special Forces teams participated in covert missions in Laos under Operations Hotfoot and White Star, training the Royal Lao Army and indigenous Hmong and Yao tribal militias to battle the communist Pathet Lao.^[60][61][62]

In November 1961, Special Forces initiated the Civilian Irregular Defense Group program in Buon Enao, South Vietnam, in conjunction with the CIA.^[63] Special Forces teams lived among Montagnard and other ethnic minority tribes in remote highland villages, providing medical care, building infrastructure, and organizing local defense forces to repel Viet Cong infiltration.^[63][64] By the end of 1963, the CIDG enrolled 18,000 combatants across 120 companies, eventually growing to over 40,000 irregular fighters operating from more than 80 fortified border camps.^[64] To support these isolated outposts, the 5th SFG formed five battalion-sized Mobile Strike Forces, known as Mike Forces, to act as rapid-reaction strike elements.^[64] On 6 July 1964, Detachment A-726 successfully defended the remote camp at Nam Dong against a coordinated assault by two Viet Cong battalions, earning team commander Captain Roger Donlon the first Medal of Honor of the Vietnam War.^[65][66]

The 5th SFG relocated its headquarters to Nha Trang in October 1964, eventually commanding all Special Forces operations across the country.^[63][67] In the Mekong Delta, Company D of the 5th SFG conducted extensive riverine operations starting in July 1967, employing approximately 400 watercraft, including 84 high-speed Hurricane airboats armed with M1919 machine guns, to assault Viet Cong staging areas in inundated swamps.^[68][69] Special Forces reconnaissance projects designated by Greek letters conducted deep cross-border and theater-wide intelligence missions.^[70] Project DELTA (Detachment B-52), initiated in 1964, paired Special Forces reconnaissance teams with South Vietnamese airborne rangers, identifying 68 enemy formations and killing 338 hostiles before disbanding in 1970.^[70][71] Project SIGMA (Detachment B-56), Project OMEGA, and Project GAMMA (Detachment B-57, operating covert intelligence networks into Cambodia) conducted similar specialized collection.^[72][73]

From 1964 to 1972, Special Forces personnel contributed heavily to the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam – Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG), a highly classified joint unconventional warfare task force conducting cross-border operations in Laos, Cambodia, and North Vietnam.^{[63][74][75][76]} Special Forces soldiers commanded reconnaissance teams, Hatchet exploitation forces, and aerial recovery elements.^[77][78] On 21 November 1970, 56 Special Forces volunteers commanded by Colonel Arthur Simons executed Operation Ivory Coast, conducting a heliborne assault inside the Son Tay prisoner of war camp near Hanoi, North Vietnam.^[79][80][81] The assault at first went according to plan and the whole team returned, but the American prisoners had been moved to another facility shortly before the assault.^[80] Throughout the Vietnam War, 16 Special Forces soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor, and over 800 members were killed in combat.^[67][82]

Post-Vietnam Era, Reorganization, and the 1980s

Following the American withdrawal from Southeast Asia, the United States military underwent substantial downsizing, leading to the deactivation of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 6th, and 8th Special Forces Groups.^[6][57][83] To preserve the operational skills of remaining personnel and justify force levels, the Army introduced Project SPARTAN (Special Proficiency at Rugged Training and Nation-Building), employing soldiers in civilian infrastructure and road construction projects across the United States.^[6] The rise of international terrorism prompted the formation of specialized counterterrorism units. In 1977, Colonel Charles Beckwith formed the 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta, while the 5th SFG organized an interim counterterrorism unit called Blue Light, which was disbanded in 1978 after Delta became operational.^[83]

During the presidency of Ronald Reagan, increased defense spending revitalized Special Forces capabilities.^[84] On 1 October 1983, the 1st Special Operations Command (Airborne) was established, followed by the reactivation of the 1st SFG in 1984.^[85] The 7th SFG, which narrowly avoided disbandment in 1980 due to appeals from United States Southern Command, became heavily engaged in Latin America.^[84][86][87] Under a congressional ceiling restricting United States military personnel in El Salvador to 55 advisers, Special Forces teams from the 7th SFG trained the Salvadoran military in small-unit patrolling, counter-guerrilla tactics, and night operations from 1981 to 1992.^[88][89] On 31 March 1987, Sergeant First Class Gregory A. Fronius of the 7th SFG was killed when the Salvadoran 4th Brigade headquarters at El Paraiso was attacked by FMLN guerrillas.^[89]

Special Forces advised counter-insurgency forces throughout Latin America, assisting government units against Sendero Luminoso in Peru, training the Colombian military's special counterterrorism unit (AFEAU), and providing covert training to the Nicaraguan Contras.^[90][91][92] In 1983, the 7th SFG took part in the invasion of Grenada, which exposed coordination problems and rivalries among the participating special operations forces.^[92][93] In December 1989, during Operation Just Cause in Panama, 24 soldiers from the 7th SFG seized the Pacora River bridge to block armored counterattacks by the Panamanian Battalion 2000, while other detachments secured strategic broadcasting sites and rounded up loyalist forces.^[93][94][95] In other regions, the 2nd Battalion of the 5th SFG trained Afghan mujahideen and Pakistani forces in guerrilla tactics and Stinger missile operations against Soviet forces, while teams from the 10th SFG deployed to Chad, Zaire, and Lebanon.^[96][97][98]

Statutory changes altered the command architecture of special operations in the late 1980s.^[99][100] The Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 and the Nunn-Cohen Amendment established the United States Special Operations Command in 1987, granting special operations forces their own funding line and command autonomy.^[100] On 9 April 1987, Department of the Army General Order No. 35 officially recognized Special Forces as a basic branch of the United States Army.^[101] On 1 December 1989, the United States Army Special Operations Command was established to oversee all Army special operations units.^[99]

Persian Gulf War and Post-Cold War Deployments

During the Gulf War, all 5th SFG operators were moved to bases in Saudi Arabia and Jordan, the 3rd SFG moved its only battalion to Dhahran, and the 10th SFG contributed a company based in Turkey for combat search and rescue in northern Iraq..^[102] Special Forces organized 109 Coalition Support Teams attached to Arab and coalition divisions, facilitating communications, guiding close air support, providing tactical intelligence, and preventing friendly-fire incidents.^{[102][103][104]} Detachments accompanied Saudi and Kuwaiti units during the Battle of Khafji and the liberation of Kuwait City.^[102] Behind enemy lines, Special Forces teams conducted deep strategic reconnaissance to detect Iraqi troop movements and locate mobile Scud missile launchers.^{[105][106][107]} Teams ODA 525 and ODA 532 infiltrated deep into southern Iraq, surviving intense engagements and emergency daytime helicopter exfiltrations without sustaining fatalities.^{[106][107][108]}

Throughout the 1990s, Special Forces participated in numerous expeditionary, peacekeeping, and humanitarian operations worldwide.^{[109][110][111]} The 10th SFG operated in Kurdistan between 1991 and 1996..^[112] From 1992 to 1995, detachments deployed to Somalia during Operation Restore Hope, conducting aerial surveillance over Mogadishu, securing human aid corridors, and directing AC-130 gunship strikes against militia compounds.^[113] In 1995 and 1999, Special Forces deployed to the Balkans for operations in Bosnia (IFOR and SFOR) and Kosovo (Operation Allied Force), acting as military liaison elements, directing air strikes against Serbian armor at Mount Pastrik, and capturing indicted war criminals.^{[110][114][115]}

The War on Terror

In October 2001, following the September 11 terrorist attacks, the 5th SFG formed the core of Task Force Dagger, deploying into northern Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime and dismantle Al-Qaeda networks under Operation Enduring Freedom.^[116][117] Working in conjunction with CIA paramilitary teams, detachments such as ODA 595, ODA 555, and ODA 534 infiltrated mountainous territory, mounted horseback alongside Northern Alliance commanders such as Abdul Rashid Dostum and Atta Muhammad Nur, directed precision air strikes, and captured Mazar-i-Sharif on 11 November 2001.^{[117][118][119][120]} Kabul fell two days later, and within 49 days the regime collapsed with only 316 Special Forces soldiers deployed on the ground.^[117][121] In December 2001, Special Forces assisted in the assault on the Tora Bora cave complex, and in March 2002, they led allied indigenous forces during Operation Anaconda in the Shah-i-Kot Valley.^[122][123]

Special Forces assumed continuous counter-insurgency, high-value targeting, and indigenous military development responsibilities across Afghanistan.^{[124][125][126]} The 3rd SFG recruited, trained, and mentored the 1st Battalion of the new Afghan National Army beginning in May 2002, and Green Berets later helped create and train the troops of the Afghan Army Special Operations Command, whose elite units the US-led coalition sought to double from 19,000 to almost 34,000.^{[124][127][128][129][130]} Special Forces personnel operated in specialized interagency strike units such as Task Force 373 to capture or kill Taliban leaders.^[131] On 6 April 2008, during an assault in the Shok Valley, members of ODA 3336 and Afghan commandos engaged approximately 200 hostile fighters in a seven-hour battle, directing close air strikes within perilous proximity to their positions and ultimately receiving ten Silver Stars for valor.^{[125][126][132]}

During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Special Forces spearheaded operations on two main fronts.^[133][134] In western Iraq, Joint Special Operations Task Force-West (Task Force Dagger), built around the 5th SFG, neutralized Scud launch facilities, secured the strategic H-3 airbase, captured Ar Rutbah, and conducted long-range vehicle reconnaissance along the highway corridors. In northern Iraq, Joint Special Operations Task Force-North (Task Force Viking), built around the 10th SFG, linked up with Kurdish Peshmerga militias after Turkey denied transit rights to conventional American ground divisions, holding 13 Iraqi divisions along the northern front, seizing the Zurqah Ziraw Dagh ridge, and capturing Kirkuk and Mosul.^{[112][134][135]}

During the post-invasion counterinsurgency campaign in Iraq, Special Forces established the Iraqi Counter-Terrorism Service and trained the Iraqi Special Operations Forces 1st Brigade, known as the Golden Division.^[136] Operating under the Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force-Arabian Peninsula, Special Forces teams advised Iraqi units in clearing urban strongholds, designing defensive containment strategies in Haditha and Ramadi that employed concrete barricades, fortified local posts, and joint patrols.^[137][138] In the battle of Tal Afar in 2005, Special Forces advisers guided combined forces to systematically isolate insurgent cells.^[137] In 2014, the 5th SFG returned to Iraq to retrain security forces and advise anti-ISIS coalitions.^[139][140] In Syria, beginning in 2015, Special Forces operated from forward bases at the Lafarge cement facility and Al-Tanf, advising the Syrian Democratic Forces and People's Protection Units (YPG) during the fighting in which the Syrian Democratic Forces eventually took control of Raqqa.^[141][142]

Special Forces conducted persistent counterterrorism operations across Africa and Asia under programs such as Operation Juniper Shield and Operation Enduring Freedom - Philippines.^[143][144] In the southern Philippines, the 1st SFG maintained a rotational presence from 2002 to 2015, advising the Armed Forces of the Philippines in operations against Abu Sayyaf and Jemaah Islamiyah in Basilan and later assisting during the 2017 siege of Marawi.^[144][145] In Africa, the 3rd SFG operated from Camp Simba in Kenya to conduct border security and reconnaissance against Al-Shabaab in Somalia, and assisted regional forces combating the Lord's Resistance Army across central Africa from 2011 to 2017.^[146][147] On 4 October 2017, an 11-man team from ODA 3212 and 30 Nigerien soldiers were ambushed by Islamic State in the Greater Sahara militants near Tongo Tongo, Niger, resulting in the deaths of four American soldiers.^[143]

Organizational Structure

United States Army Special Forces command architecture is organized under the 1st Special Forces Command (Airborne), a division-level component subordinate to the United States Army Special Operations Command at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.^{[1][13][148][149]} Operational direction for theater missions is allocated to regional Unified Combatant Commands and their corresponding Theater Special Operations Commands.^[150] The total force encompasses five active-duty Special Forces Groups and two Army National Guard Groups, with active groups historically containing three battalions before expanding to four active battalions each between 2008 and 2012.^[151]

Independent chemical warfare units operate under direct command of the Special Forces Command, providing detection, identification, and defense against chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons.^[25][152] These units include the 56th Chemical Reconnaissance Detachment at Fort Campbell, Kentucky; the 801st Chemical Reconnaissance Detachment at Fort Bragg, North Carolina; and two Army Reserve units, the 445th Chemical Reconnaissance Detachment at Fort George G. Meade, Maryland, and the 900th Chemical Reconnaissance Detachment at Fort Carson, Colorado.^[25]

Special Forces Groups

Each Special Forces Group maintains a specific regional geographic alignment and trains its personnel in the relevant regional cultures and languages: * 1st Special Forces Group (Airborne): Headquartered at Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington, with its 1st Battalion forward-deployed at Torii Station, Okinawa, and the 39th Special Forces Detachment at Seongnam, South Korea; regionally oriented toward the Indo-Pacific under United States Indo-Pacific Command.^{[36][150][153][154][155]} * 3rd Special Forces Group (Airborne): Headquartered at Fort Bragg, North Carolina; regionally oriented toward Sub-Saharan Africa under United States Africa Command, with extensive operational service in Afghanistan and Central Command.^[154] * 5th Special Forces Group (Airborne): Its theater of operations is Central Command (southern and western parts)..^[154] * 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne): Headquartered at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, following its relocation from Fort Bragg in 2011; regionally oriented toward Latin America, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean under United States Southern Command and Northern Command.^[154] * 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne): Headquartered at Fort Carson, Colorado, with its 1st Battalion forward-deployed to the Panzer Kaserne in Böblingen, Germany; regionally oriented toward Europe, the Balkans, Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and North Africa under United States European Command.^[36][154] * 19th Special Forces Group (Airborne): Army National Guard, headquartered at Draper, Utah, with subordinate units across Washington, West Virginia, Ohio, Rhode Island, Colorado, California, and Texas; shares regional orientations toward Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.^[153][156] * 20th Special Forces Group (Airborne): Army National Guard, headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama, with battalions located across Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida, and detachments in North Carolina, Illinois, Kentucky, and Maryland; shares regional orientation over Latin America and the Caribbean.^[153][154]

Several Special Forces Groups were activated during the Cold War and subsequently retired.^[57][58] The 6th SFG, active at Fort Bragg from 1963 to 1971, focused on Southwest Asia and Southeast Asia, supplying volunteers for the Son Tay raid.^[57][81] The 8th SFG, stationed in the Panama Canal Zone from 1963 to 1972, directed counter-insurgency training across Latin America and ran the Army Jungle Warfare School at Fort Sherman.^{[57][157][158]} The 11th SFG and 12th SFG were among the Army Reserve Special Forces groups..^{[57][159][160]} Additional reserve and National Guard formations, including the 2nd, 4th, 9th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th Groups, were activated during the 1960s before being phased out.^{[159][160][161][162]}

Echelon Composition and Detachment Structure

The operational architecture of a Special Forces Group descends from battalion headquarters to the individual twelve-man team.^[163] The battalion headquarters element is the Special Forces Operational Detachment-C, or C-Team.^[163][164] Commanded by a lieutenant colonel assisted by a battalion command sergeant major, the C-Team comprises 20 to 30 specialists directing battalion operations, signal infrastructure, logistics, intelligence, and medical services.^[163][164] A typical battalion includes three line companies and a battalion support company.^[164]

The company headquarters element is the Special Forces Operational Detachment-B, or B-Team, consisting of 11 to 13 personnel.^{[11][165][166]} The ODB is commanded by a major (18A) assisted by an executive officer captain (18A), a company technician chief warrant officer three (180A), a company sergeant major (18Z), an operations master sergeant (18Z), an assistant operations sergeant first class (18F), a medical sergeant first class (18D), and two communications sergeants (18E).^[152][167] Company support roles include a CBRN defense NCO, usually a sergeant, who maintains and operates the company's detection and decontamination equipment..^[152]

The fundamental tactical building block is the Special Forces Operational Detachment-Alpha, or A-Team, consisting of 12 soldiers cross-trained across tactical disciplines.^{[11][168][169]} The team is commanded by a captain (18A Detachment Commander) and a warrant officer one or chief warrant officer two (180A Assistant Detachment Commander).^[168] Senior enlisted leadership is provided by a master sergeant (18Z Team Sergeant) and a sergeant first class (18F Assistant Operations and Intelligence Sergeant).^[168][169] The team incorporates pairs of enlisted functional specialists: two weapons sergeants (18B), two engineer sergeants (18C), two medical sergeants (18D), and two communications sergeants (18E).^{[11][168][169]} This dual-specialist structure allows the detachment to divide into two autonomous six-man split teams while maintaining operational capability and internal mentoring.^{[11][168][170]} On unconventional warfare missions, ODAs typically raise company- to battalion-sized units..^[152]

Detachments are identified by four-digit designation numbers adopted in 2007, replacing an earlier three-digit system.^[165] The first digit indicates the Group (1 for 1st SFG, 3 for 3rd SFG, 5 for 5th SFG, 7 for 7th SFG, 0 for 10th SFG, 9 for 19th SFG, 2 for 20th SFG).^[54][165] The second digit identifies the battalion (1 through 4); the third digit signifies the company (1 for A Company, 2 for B Company, 3 for C Company); and the fourth digit denotes the specific detachment within that company (1 through 6).^[165] Under standard company distribution, ODAs maintain functional infiltration specializations: * Free-Fall Teams: Specialize in high-altitude free-fall parachute infiltration (HALO and HAHO) using oxygen systems, typically maintained by at least one ODA per company.^[3][25][171] * Combat Diver / Maritime Teams: Specialize in open-circuit scuba and closed-circuit rebreathers, underwater navigation, submarine lock-out, and combat rubber raiding craft operations.^[3][25] * Mountain Teams: Trained in technical rock climbing, high-altitude mountaineering, cold-weather warfare, and packing pack animals, supported by the Special Forces Advanced Mountain Operations School.^{[3][172][173]} * Mobility Teams: Trained in mounted motorized operations, operating up to four Ground Mobility Vehicles with heavy vehicular armament.^[3][174]

Recruitment, Selection, and Training

Candidates for Special Forces are volunteers selected through competitive evaluations.^[175][176] Service members must be between 20 and 36 years old, hold United States citizenship, possess a high school diploma, score a General Technical score of 110 or higher on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery, qualify for airborne training, and be eligible for a secret security clearance.^[175][177] Enlisted applicants must be of rank E-3 (private first class) or higher, have fewer than 9 months time in grade as E-7 when applying, have no more than 12 to 14 years in service before training, and have 36 months or more left in service after completing Special Forces training..^[175][178] Officer applicants must hold the rank of first lieutenant or captain, obtain a Defense Language Aptitude Battery score of 85 or higher, and qualify for top secret clearance.^[175][178] Civilian candidates can enlist directly under the 18X enlistment option, entering as infantrymen with a guaranteed opportunity to attend assessment upon completing basic and airborne training.^[179]

The evaluation and training pathway begins with the Special Forces Preparation Course at Fort Bragg, lasting two to three weeks, focusing on physical conditioning, land navigation, and map reading.^[176] Candidates then attend the Special Forces Assessment and Selection at Camp Mackall, North Carolina.^[176][180] Over 24 days, candidates undergo rigorous physical evaluation, including timed ruck marches with 45-pound loads up to 75 kilometers, obstacle courses, team events transporting heavy objects through sand, and psychological evaluations.^[176][181] Approximately 20 to 40 percent of candidates complete SFAS successfully to receive an invitation to the Special Forces Qualification Course.^[176]

The Special Forces Qualification Course, conducted by the 1st Special Warfare Training Group at the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School, ranges from 55 to 95 weeks depending on MOS and language track.^[180][182] The curriculum is structured into progressive phases:.^[183] * Language and Culture: Instruction spanning 18 to 25 weeks in languages assigned according to regional alignments, including Arabic, Russian, Persian, Spanish, French, Korean, Mandarin Chinese, Indonesian, Tagalog, and Thai.^[11][184] * Small Unit Tactics and SERE: Seven to ten weeks of tactical combat training in patrolling, close-quarters battle, weapons manipulation, and ambushes, followed by three weeks of Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) training.^[183] * Military Occupational Specialty: Specialization courses covering 18A (Officers, 15 to 24 weeks), 18B (Weapons Sergeants, 15 to 24 weeks), 18C (Engineer Sergeants, 15 to 24 weeks), 18E (Communications Sergeants, 15 to 32 weeks), and 18D (Special Operations Combat Medic, 48 to 59 weeks, focused on trauma care and including placements in civilian emergency clinics). * Robin Sage: A four-week culmination field exercise held across 15 counties in North Carolina, designated the fictional country of Pineland.^[185] Candidates, formed into A-Teams, infiltrate the area, make contact with a guerrilla force (the G-Force, played by Special Forces veterans and reservists, ROTC cadets, and volunteers from other units), win its trust, train and lead it, and organize attacks with it against opposition forces.^[186] * Graduation: Formal award of the Green Beret, the Special Forces Tab, and the Yarborough Knife.^{[180][187][188]}

Following qualification, soldiers are eligible for advanced operational schools, including the Military Free Fall Parachutist Course at Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona, the Special Forces Combat Diver Qualification Course at Key West, Florida, the Special Forces Sniper Course, the Special Forces Advanced Reconnaissance, Target Analysis, and Exploitation Techniques Course, and the Special Forces Advanced Mountain Operations School in Colorado.^{[172][189][190][191]}

Women were officially integrated into combat specialties following Department of Defense policy revisions in 2015.^[192] Earlier, in 1981, Captain Kathleen Wilder became the first woman to qualify for Special Forces, having contested a denial of graduation on sex discrimination grounds, and was subsequently awarded the Special Forces Tab in 1983.^{[193][194][195]} In July 2020, the first female soldier successfully completed the Special Forces Qualification Course and joined an operational Green Beret team.^{[193][196][197]}

Uniforms, Insignia, and Heraldry

The rifle green beret was adopted unofficially in 1954 by personnel of the 77th Special Forces Group searching for distinctive service headgear, drawing on a beret collection belonging to Captain Miguel de la Peña and influenced by British Commando traditions.^[52] Major Herbert Brucker and Captain Frank Dallas had berets manufactured for members of the 10th and 77th Groups.^[52] The beret was first worn publicly on 12 June 1955 during a retirement parade for Major General Joseph P. Cleland at Fort Bragg. In 1956, Fort Bragg post commander General Paul D. Adams banned the headgear, but personnel continued to wear it surreptitiously.^[198][199] On 25 September 1961, Department of the Army Message 578636 officially designated the green beret as the exclusive headgear of Army Special Forces, a decision reaffirmed by President John F. Kennedy during his visit on 12 October 1961.^{[52][54][55][56]}

The Distinctive Unit Insignia consists of two crossed silver arrows surmounted by a V-42 stiletto dagger point-up, over a black scroll bearing the motto 'De Oppresso Liber' in silver letters.^[200] The crossed arrows were originally worn by the United States Army Indian Scouts and the 1st Special Service Force during the Second World War.^[200][201] The motto translates from Latin as 'From Oppression We Will Liberate Them'.^[200][202] Approved on 8 July 1960, the insignia was formally authorized for all personnel of the 1st Special Forces Command and subordinate units lacking individual emblems on 27 October 2016.^[200]

The Shoulder Sleeve Insignia of the 1st Special Forces Command features a teal-blue arrowhead charged with a vertical golden fighting dagger overlaid by three golden lightning bolts.^[203][204] The arrowhead symbolizes the field craft and survival skills of Native American scouts; the dagger represents the unconventional nature of Special Forces warfare; and the three lightning bolts denote rapid infiltration capabilities by air, land, and sea.^[203] Designed by Captain John W. Frye at Bad Tölz, it was approved on 22 August 1955, replacing the Airborne Command shoulder patch previously authorized for classified special warfare units.^{[203][204][205]}

Introduced in June 1983, the Special Forces Tab is a service qualification badge awarded upon completing institutional training programs.^[187] The cloth tab is teal blue with the inscription 'SPECIAL FORCES' embroidered in golden yellow, worn on the left sleeve above the shoulder sleeve insignia.^[187] Full-sized and miniature metal replicas are worn on the Army Service Uniform.^[187][206] Retroactive eligibility is authorized for veterans who served at least 120 consecutive days in historical wartime units prior to 1955, including the 1st Special Service Force, OSS detachments, the Alamo Scouts, and the 8240th Army Unit.^[207] Since 2002, all qualification course graduates receive a serial-numbered Yarborough Knife, designed by knifemaker Bill Harsey Jr. in collaboration with Chris Reeve Knives and named in honor of Lieutenant General William P. Yarborough.^[188][208]

Vehicles, Equipment, and Armament

Special Forces maintain a dedicated motorized fleet tailored for long-range reconnaissance and autonomous operations.^[209] Beginning in 1985 with Desert Mobility Vehicle trials, the 5th SFG developed operational doctrines for modified Humvees.^[210] Mobility teams employ Ground Mobility Vehicle (GMV) variants based on the M1026, M998, and M1113 chassis, outfitted with upgraded suspension, communications suites, and weapon mounts for M2HB heavy machine guns, Mk 19 grenade launchers, and M134 Miniguns.^[209][210] Support sections employ heavily modified 2.5-ton FMTV trucks known as War Pigs to replenish fuel and ordnance on long-range patrols.^[211] The inventory has expanded to include the General Dynamics M1288 GMV 1.1, Oshkosh M-ATV mine-resistant vehicles, RG-33 armored platforms, modified Stryker wheeled fighting vehicles, and light tactical platforms such as Polaris MRZR utility vehicles, quads, and motorcycles.^{[211][212][213]}

For maritime operations, teams deploy with Combat Rubber Raiding Craft (Zodiac CRRC), rigid-hulled inflatable boats, and long-range tactical folding kayaks capable of open-ocean transits exceeding 45 kilometers.^[214][215] Vertical insertion capabilities are sustained through collaboration with the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment using MH-60 Black Hawks and MH-47 Chinooks.^[106] During the initial stages of Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan, Special Forces made extensive use of CIA-operated Mi-8 and Mi-17 helicopters.^[216][217] Tactical communications and intelligence analysis utilize the SOCRATES deployed computer network and ROVER handheld software systems to stream live target data to AC-130 gunships and attack aircraft.^[218][219]

Special Forces detachments possess an expansive weapons inventory tailored to mission requirements: * Carbines and Rifles: Standard rifles include the M4A1 SOPMOD (Block I and II), MK18 CQBR, Upper Receiver Group-Improved (URG-I), Heckler & Koch HK416, and FN SCAR-H.^{[220][221][222][223]} Historically, teams carried M16A1, XM177/CAR-15, M14 rifles, and extensive foreign and captured weapons including AK-47, AKM, RPD, and SKS rifles.^[221][224] * Submachine Guns: Inventory has included the Heckler & Koch MP5A3 and integrally suppressed MP5SD3, Heckler & Koch UMP in.45 ACP, Uzi, and historic Carl Gustaf m/45 and MAT-49 models.^{[221][225][226]} * Sniper Systems: Precision rifles include the Barrett M107 SASR, Barrett M82A1, M24 Sniper Weapon System, M25 SWS, M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System, Mk 12 Special Purpose Rifle, Mk 13 Mod 5, Mk 20 SSR, and Mk 22 Advanced Sniper Rifle.^[220] * Machine Guns: Support armament includes the 5.56 mm M249 SAW, 7.62 mm M60, M240B, Mk 48 Mod 0, Sig Sauer MG338, and.50-caliber Browning M2HB.^[220][227] * Sidearms: Standard pistols include the Glock 19 (Mk 27 Mod 0), SIG Sauer M17 and M18, Beretta M9, SIG Sauer P226/P228, Heckler & Koch Mk 23, and M1911A1.^[228] * Shotguns and Heavy Launchers: Shotguns include the Mossberg 500, M870, and M1014. Heavy launch systems include the M79, M203, M320, Mk 19, and Mk 47 grenade launchers, alongside anti-armor weapons including the M72 LAW, M136 AT4, M3 MAAWS, and FGM-148 Javelin.

Professional Culture, Legal Status, and Controversies

The term 'Operator' in American special operations originated within United States Army Special Forces.^[229][230] Qualified personnel in the mid-1950s were required to subscribe to the provisions of the 'Code of the Special Forces Operator' by witnessed signature, decades before the adoption of the term by Delta Force or Naval Special Warfare.^[229][230] In United States military parlance, the term 'Special Forces' is a capitalized proper noun restricted exclusively to the Army Green Berets, distinguishing them from the broader collective umbrella of 'Special Operations Forces'.^{[3][231][232][233]}

Special Forces operations exist within complex legal frameworks under United States Code Title 10 (military operations) and Title 50 (intelligence and covert operations).^[234][235] Deployments conducted under the War Powers Resolution require notification to Congress, though presidential directives and national security findings allow operational autonomy in denied areas.^[234] Special Forces activities have generated significant international legal controversies.^[236][237] Human rights organizations such as Amnesty International stated in their annual reports covering 1975, 1976 and 1977 that Special Forces, among others, had advised and trained units from Central American countries such as Guatemala and El Salvador in torture methods.^[238] In 1986, the International Court of Justice ruled against the United States in the Nicaragua case concerning covert support to paramilitary Contra forces, though the United States contested the court's jurisdiction.^{[236][239][240]}

Special Forces have featured prominently in popular culture, public media, and national memorials.^{[241][242][243]} The 1966 ballad 'The Ballad of the Green Berets', co-written and performed by Staff Sergeant Barry Sadler, became a top-selling national hit.^{[83][242][243][244]} Depictions in film and literature include the 1968 John Wayne film 'The Green Berets', the 1982 film 'First Blood' featuring the character John Rambo, and Francis Ford Coppola's 'Apocalypse Now'.^[242][243] At Fort Bragg, the Bronze Bruce memorial statue, sculpted in 1968, stands opposite the USASOC headquarters as the first monument honoring fallen special operations soldiers of the Vietnam War.^[242]

References

1. "General Orders No. 35". www.history.army.mil. Archived from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 2 February 2025.
2. Department of the Army (26 August 2019). "DA PAM 600-3: Special Forces Branch" (PDF). Army.mil.
3. Chapter 3: US ARMY SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES. In: SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES Reference Manual. Army Command and General Staff College, abgerufen am 27. April 2015 (englisch, Version 2.1 Academic Year 99/00).
4. "Army Special Forces: Mission and History". military.com. 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023."Special Forces Officer". goarmy.com. 16 April 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2023."THE UNITED STATES ARMY SPECIAL FORCES". greenberetfoundation.org. Retrieved 28 February 2023."ASSESSING U.S. SPECIAL OPERATIONS COMMAND'S MISSIONS AND ROLES". govinfo.gov. 29 June 2006. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
5. ""Special Forces Core Missions - Army National Guard"".
6. After months of intense preparation, Bank’s unit was finally activated June 19, 1952, at Fort Bragg bei specialoperations.com (Memento vom 6. November 2013 im Internet Archive)
7. Lee, Michael (24 March 2022). "The US Army's Green Berets quietly helped tilt the battlefield a little bit more toward Ukraine". MSN. FOX News. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
8. "USASOC Headquarters Fact Sheet". United States Army Special Operations Command. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
9. "Primary Special Forces Missions". Go Army. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
10. Wertz, Anthony; Gallagher, Stuart (18 April 2021). "Rethinking Army Special Operation Forces-Department of State Partnership in Europe | Small Wars Journal". Small Wars Journal. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021.
11. US Army Special Forces Command (Airborne). In: globalsecurity.org. Jon Pike, abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (englisch): „Foreign Internal Defense operations, SF’s main peacetime mission, are designed to help friendly developing nations by working with their military and police forces to improve their technical skills, understanding of human rights issues, and to help with humanitarian and civic action projects.“
12. «Core Activities». Comando de Operações Especiais dos Estados Unidos. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
13. Army Special Operations Forces Fact Book 2018 Arhivat în 19 octombrie 2016, la Wayback Machine., USASOC official website, dated 2018, last accessed 28 July 2019
14. Joint Chiefs of Staff (17 December 2003). "Joint Publication 3-05: Doctrine for Joint Special Operations" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2000. Retrieved 27 April 2008.
15. Joint Chiefs of Staff (17 decembrie 2003). „Joint Publication 3-05: Doctrine for Joint Special Operations” (PDF). Arhivat din original (PDF) la 7 mai 2008. Accesat în 27 aprilie 2008.
16. Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces – Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5, S. 141.
17. Michael Lee (24 de março de 2022). «The US Army's Green Berets quietly helped tilt the battlefield a little bit more toward Ukraine». Fox News Channel. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
18. Scarborough, Rowan (23 January 2013). "Africa's Fast-Reaction Force Ready to Go from Colorado". The Washington Times. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
19. Trevithick, Joseph. „The Army is Training Specialized Companies of Green Berets to Crack Hard Targets“. The WarZone.
21. Trevithick, Joseph (2 December 2020). "The Army is Training Specialized Companies of Green Berets to Crack Hard Targets". The WarZone. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
22. Atlamazoglou, Stavros (4 March 2020). "The Army 1st Special Forces Command disbands elite Crisis Response Forces". SOFREP. Archived from the original on 5 June 2022.
23. "Shadows in the night; Polish, German SOF train with U.S. Special Forces". army.mil. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
24. Joseph Trevithick (10 de maio de 2021). «The Army Is Training Specialized Companies Of Green Berets To Crack "Hard Targets"». The War Zone. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
25. “FID operations are designed to help friendly developing nations by working with host country military and paramilitary forces to improve their technical skills, understanding of human rights issues, and to help with humanitarian and civic action projects.” bei www.specialoperations.com (Memento vom 30. Juli 2013 im Internet Archive)
26. https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/green-berets-rebuilding-guerrilla-leader-identity
27. Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). "The CIA's Secret Army". Time. Archived from the original on 9 December 2007.
28. Clancy, Tom: Special Forces. S. 195: „Sie hatte in fünf verschiedenen Einsätzen 2314 Gefallene zu beklagen, das entspricht 134 % ihrer ursprünglichen Stärke.“
29. Michael E. Krivdo (28 de novembro de 2018). «The Alamo Scouts». Exército dos Estados Unidos. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2023.
30. Troy J. Sacquety (2007). «The Office of Strategic Services (OSS)». Veritas, Vol. 3, No. 4. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
31. «First Special Service Force». ARSOF History. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2023.
32. «History». United States Army Special Operations Command. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2023.
33. Russell W. Volckmann (1958). «FM 31-21 Guerrilla Warfare And Special Forces Operations». Departamento do Exército dos Estados Unidos. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2023.
34. Officer Efficiency Report, Bank, Aaron, 11 May 1952, Aaron Bank Service Record, National Military Personnel Records Center, St. Louis, Missouri
35. Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces. Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5, S. 197: „Das Versagen von CIA und SOF im und nach dem Koreakrieg zeigte die Lücken im Spektrum der Einsatzprofile des amerikanischen Militärs auf.“
36. McClure, who headed the Army’s psychological warfare staff in the Pentagon. bei specialoperations.com (Memento vom 6. November 2013 im Internet Archive)
37. «Colonel Aaron Bank». ARSOF History. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2023.
38. "10th SFG (A) History". United States Army Special Operations Command. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022.
39. (en) Rudolf G. Horvath, « Escape from Behind the Iron Curtain : The Odyssey of a Lodge-Act SF Soldier », Special Warfare, vol. 16, no 1,‎ avril 2003, p. 36-45 (lire en ligne, consulté le 16 février 2014)
40. «7th Special Forces Group (Airborne) History». United States Army Special Operations Command. Consultado el 31 de agosto de 2023.
41. «10th SFG (A) History». United States Army Special Operations Command. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
42. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 30 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 30 de diciembre de 2019.
43. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/39sf.htm
44. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 30 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 30 de diciembre de 2019.
45. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/military-review/Archives/Spanish/MilitaryReview_20151231_art009SPA.pdf
46. Tsouras 1994, p. 91. (Tsouras, Peter (1994). Changing Orders : The Evolution of the World's Armies, 1945 to the Present. New York: Arms and Armour. p. 352. ISBN 978-1-85409-018-8. OCLC 31136302.)
47. Francis J. Kelly: U.S. Army Special Forces, 1961-1971. In: Department of the Army (Hrsg.): Vietnam Studies. Washington DC 1973, LCCN 72-600263 (archive.org): „On 24 June 1957 the 1st Special Forces Group was activated on Okinawa,“
48. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 31 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 31 de diciembre de 2019.
49. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 31 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 31 de diciembre de 2019.
50. https://www.deseret.com/1995/8/27/19189843/special-forces-live-up-to-name-in-thailand
51. Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces – Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5, S. 13–17 (Siehe Einleitung von Lieutenant General (ret.) William P. Yarborough).
52. "History: Special Forces Green Beret". Special Forces Association HQ. Archived from the original on 10 March 2007. Retrieved 8 March 2007.
53. SF History. A Brief History of the US Army Special Forces. In: specialforcesassociation.org. Special Forces Association, archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar) am 19. August 2014; abgerufen am 18. August 2014 (englisch).
54. 小林源文『VIETNAM WAR』ソフトバンククリエイティブ ISBN 4797308346 p190（1999年3月28日）
55. "Army Black Beret A Short History of the Use of Berets in the U.S. Army". Army.mil. Archived from the original on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 30 April 2013.
56. After his visit to Fort Bragg, the president told the Pentagon that he considered the green beret to be „symbolic of one of the highest levels of courage and achievement of the United States military.“ Soon, the green beret became synonymous with Special Forces, so much so that the two terms became interchangeable. And, indeed, it was fitting that the men of the Special Forces finally had the right to wear their elite headgear because they were now on the brink of proving just how elite they were. Vietnam was beckoning. online, Archivlink (Memento vom 4. März 2016 im Internet Archive)
57. Mahon, John K; Danysh, Romana (1972). Army lineage series Infantry Part I: Regular Army. Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army. pp. 887–922. LCCN 74-610219. OCLC 557542564. Government Publishing Office Stock Number 0829-0082. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
58. Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces – Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5, S. 202: „1963 folgten ihr dann die 3rd, 6th und 8th SFG“
59. https://www.elconfidencial.com/alma-corazon-vida/2017-02-05/misterio-soldado-john-hartley-robertson_1325595/
60. Dr. Finlayson, Kenn: Operation White Star: prelude to Vietnam. (Memento vom 23. April 2018 im Internet Archive) in Special Warfare (englisch, Bericht auch verfügbar auf militaryphoptos.com (Memento vom 22. Dezember 2014 im Internet Archive))
61. https://www.elmundo.es/papel/historias/2016/05/24/57444c8d468aebcf098b46de.html
62. https://media.defense.gov/2019/Jul/02/2002153035/-1/-1/0/B_0156_CELESKI_SPECIAL_AIR_WARFARE_%20AND_THE_SECRET_WAR_IN_LAOS_AIR_COMMANDOS_1964_1975.PDF
63. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2013/11/the-green-berets-and-the-montagnards-how-an-indigenous-tribe-won-the-admiration-of-green-berets-and-lost-everything.html
64. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 12 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 12 de diciembre de 2019.
65. Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces – Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5, S. 202 - 203 (Über das Gefecht).
66. Moore, Robin (2002). The Green Berets. St. Martin's Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-312-98492-2.
67. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 13 de enero de 2020. Consultado el 13 de enero de 2020.
68. https://www.warhistoryonline.com/instant-articles/the-magnificent-one-vietnam.html
69. https://www.si.edu/object/siris_sil_546822
70. https://history.army.mil/books/Vietnam/7-ff/FrontMatter.htm
71. https://www.wvgazettemail.com/freepass/shortest-us-soldier-in-vietnam-war-was-not-short-in/article_acf054d8-c297-5870-b003-2ca44a68ca87.html
72. https://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/21/books/secret-vietnam-exploits-by-us-commandos.html
73. https://www.heraldnet.com/nation-world/michael-healy-who-led-green-berets-in-vietnam-dies-at-91/
74. Plaster, John L. (1998). SOG: The Secret Wars of America's Commandos in Vietnam. New York: Berkley Books. ISBN 978-0451195081. OCLC 39543945.
75. https://laultimabatalla.wordpress.com/2011/10/01/vietnam-y-el-asunto-de-los-boinas-verdes/
76. これらSOGの活動の一端は、フィクションであるが、映画『スパイ・ゲーム』の中である程度描かれており、SOGが当時行ってきた任務内容が分かりやすく表現されている。
77. https://www.army.mil/article/216498/macv_sog_history
78. https://sofrep.com/news/operation-tailwind-anniversary-part-1/
79. High-altitude photos of the prison were taken frequently by SR-71 „Blackbirds“ and low-altitude pictures by Buffalo Hunter reconnaissance drones. bei afa.org (Memento vom 25. März 2008 im Internet Archive) (englisch)
80. Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces – Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5, S. 203 - 206 (Über die Operation Kingpin).
81. https://deadliestfiction.fandom.com/wiki/MACV-SOG
82. https://history.army.mil/html/books/090/90-23-1/CMH_Pub_90-23-1.pdf
83. VENHUIZEN, Harm. How the Green Berets got their name [online]. 14 July 2020 [cit. 2022-06-10]. Dostupné online. Je zde použita šablona {{Cite web}} označená jako k „pouze dočasnému použití“.
84. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 3 de enero de 2020. Consultado el 3 de enero de 2020.
85. Jake Jacobson: 1st Special Forces Group (Airborne). In: groups.sfahq.com. Archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar) am 16. Februar 2009; abgerufen am 30. Januar 2009 (englisch).
86. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 19 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2019.
87. https://www.wearethemighty.com/articles/this-long-forgotten-unit-was-the-direct-predecessor-to-delta-force
88. https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-47981124
89. (en) US Special Operations Command, United States Special Operations Command History, 1987-2007, MacDill AFB, USSOCOM History and Research Office, 2007 (lire en ligne), p. 54 ; (en) Major Paul P. Cale, The United States Military Advisory Group in El Salvador, 1979-1992, 1996 [lire en ligne] p. 13-15 ; (en) Sergeant First Class John Terzian, « SF Advisers in El Salvador : The Attack on El Paraiso », Special Warfare, vol. 14, no 2,‎ été 2001, p. 18-25 (lire en ligne, consulté le 16 février 2014).
90. https://sofrep.com/specialoperations/7th-sfg-stemmed-the-tide-guaranteed-the-peace-in-el-salvador/
91. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/honduras/Proto-Insurgency-Honduras.pdf
92. Ed Magnuson: Grenada: Getting Back to Normal. In: Time Magazine. 21. November 1983, abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (englisch).
93. https://www.army.mil/article/215407/hold_that_bridge_the_7th_special_forces_group_and_operation_just_cause
94. https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-veteran-who-fought-in-manuel-noriegas-christmas-war
95. (en) United States Special Operations Command History, 1987-2007, p. 41-42
96. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/08/the-soviet-war-in-afghanistan-1979-1989/100786/
97. https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/27/world/us-arms-airlift-to-angola-rebels-is-said-to-go-on.html
98. https://www.unav.edu/web/global-affairs/detalle/-/blogs/toyota-wars-and-the-next-generation-in-counter-insurgency-strategies
99. US Army Special Operations Command (USASOC). In: globalsecurity.org. John Pike, abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (englisch): „Army Special Operation Command was established December 1, 1989. ARSOC is the Army component of U.S. Special Operations Command, a unified command. ARSOC trains, equips, deploys and sustains Army special-operations forces for worldwide special operations supporting regional combatant commanders and country ambassadors.“
100. Interview von Tom Clancy mit Gen. (ret.) Henry H. Shelton, Seite 92, Tom Clancy, John Gresham: Special Forces – Die Spezialeinheiten der U.S. Army. Heyne, München 2002, ISBN 3-453-86912-5
101. "Army General Order No. 35" (PDF). US Army Center of Military History. 19 June 1987. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 14 November 2019.
102. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a312864.pdf
103. https://www.nationalguard.mil/portals/31/Documents/About/Publications/Documents/Mobilizing%20for%20the%20Storm%20-%20ARNG%20In%20Operations%20Desert%20Shield%20and%20Desert%20Storm.pdf
104. (en) Principal Deputy Under Secretary (Strategy and Resources), Conduct of the Persian Gulf War: Final Report to Congress, Département de la Défense, Washington DC, avril 1992, Appendix J, p. J-9
105. También se asesoró y entrenó a las tropas especiales sauditas, junto a las cuales se patrulló para detectar donde se encontraban exactamente las unidades iraquíes del frente.
106. https://sofrep.com/news/strange-days-in-the-green-berets-of-pipes-and-dogs/
107. (en) Douglas C. Waller, The Commandos, 1-19 et 356-382. Un récit du sauvetage en plein jour de trois hommes de l'ODA 523 est donné dans le livre de Michael Durant et Steven Hartov, Pilotes en missions secrètes [« The Night Stalkers »], éditions Altipresse, Levallois-Perret, 2010 (ISBN 2911218809 et 978-2911218804)
108. https://www.wearethemighty.com/watch/watch-green-berets-demonstrate-a-lot-of-cool-firepower
109. "Army Special Operations Forces Timeline". U.S.Army Special Operations Command History Office. Archived from the original on 4 June 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
110. https://fas.org/man/eprint/ramirez.pdf
111. „Inside the Green Berets' Hunt for Wanted Warlord Joseph Kony”. NBC News. 6 martie 2017.
112. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 31 de julio de 2019. Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2019.
113. (en) Colonel Joseph D. Celeski, « A History of SF Operations in Somalia : 1992-1995 », Special Warfare, vol. 15, no 2,‎ juin 2002, p. 16-27 (lire en ligne, consulté le 16 février 2014)
114. https://www.stripes.com/news/many-in-army-special-forces-denied-medals-for-balkan-actions-1.42276
115. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1365/MR1365.ch3.pdf
116. https://www.forces.net/services/tri-service/tip-spear-green-berets-afghanistan
117. (en) Dana Priest, « 'Team 555' Shaped a New Way of War. Les 316 hommes se décomposant comme suit : 18 A-teams, 4 B-teams et 3 C-teams. Ce nombre ne tient pas compte des Combat Controllers et des agents de la CIA qui accompagnaient généralement les équipes.
118. Haney, Eric L. (2002). Inside Delta Force. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 978-0385336031. OCLC 57373772.
119. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/todareandtoconquer.htm
120. https://sofrep.com/specialoperations/battle-mazar-e-sharif-special-forces-troops-mount-horseback-assault/
121. https://www.army.mil/article/181582/first_to_go_green_berets_remember_earliest_mission_in_afghanistan
122. https://www.abc.es/espana/abci-pentagono-envia-zona-tora-bora-francotiradores-y-equiposynbsp-militares-especializados-extracciones-200112150300-66424_noticia.html
123. https://www.lavanguardia.com/internacional/20171102/432539025809/cia-divulga-cientos-miles-documentos-ultima-guarida-bin-laden.html
124. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2008/RAND_MG595.pdf
125. https://www.wsj.com/articles/green-berets-brace-for-islamic-state-offensive-in-afghanistan-1526412307
126. (en) Janice Burton, « Cliffhanger : Fierce battle in the Shok Valley tests SF team’s mettle », Special Warfare, vol. 22, no 1,‎ janvier-février 2009, p. 14-17 (lire en ligne, consulté le 16 février 2014)
127. https://elpais.com/internacional/2011/05/03/actualidad/1304373619_850215.html
128. https://www.dvidshub.net/news/66828/soldiers-20th-sfg-look-back-deployment-afghanistan
129. https://abcblogs.abc.es/tierra-mar-aire/otan/mision-en-afganistan-los-operaciones-especiales-de-espana-en-kabul.html
130. https://www.semana.com/mundo/articulo/american-psycho/255035-3
131. http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.php?id=203161
132. https://www.axios.com/us-green-beret-killed-in-afghanistan-identified-3b74ffbd-19bc-4cb1-bd37-e48de8d73f04.html
133. https://www.globalresearch.ca/2003-2013-resistencia-iraqui-guerra-sucia-estadounidense-y-lo-que-queda-de-oriente-proximo/5332494
134. (en) United States Special Operations Command History, 1987-2007, p. 113-117
135. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 16 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2019.
136. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/military-review/Archives/Spanish/MilitaryReview_20090831_art011SPA.pdf
137. https://inss.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/stratperspective/inss/Strategic-Perspectives-4.pdf
138. https://mwi.usma.edu/measure-counterinsurgency-success-afghanistan/
139. https://military.id.me/vet-pack/incredible-video-of-old-green-beret-saving-a-child-from-isis/
140. https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-army/2019/08/10/us-service-member-dies-on-mission-in-iraq/
141. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/sas-and-green-berets-join-fight-for-mosul-0d0lrkg2f#
142. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-07/australian-soldier-fights-with-green-berets-in-afghanistan/9950860
143. https://geopolitico.es/la-decada-de-guerras-que-viene/
144. https://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/us-special-operations-forces-in-the-philippines-2001%E2%80%932014
145. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt1cd0md9.9?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
146. https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/afp/las-fuerzas-especiales-de-eeuu-en-%C3%A1frica--discretas-pero-cada-vez-m%C3%A1s-numerosas/43614818
147. https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.washingtonpost.com%2fworld%2fafrica%2fdeadly-nairobi-attack-comes-as-us-military-ramps-up-airstrikes-against-al-shabab-in-somalia%2f2019%2f01%2f17%2febf40936-1a6c-11e9-b8e6-567190c2fd08_story.html
148. Major General Lawrence G. Ferguson (USA). Archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar); abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (englisch).
149. Philippe Chapleau, « Les forces spéciales de l'US Army réorganisées: création du 1st Special Forces Command », sur Lignes de défense, 6 décembre 2014 (consulté le 20 mars 2020).
150. US Army Special Forces Command. (PDF) In: Factbook United States Special Operations Command. USSOCMOM Public Affairs, S. 12, abgerufen am 17. August 2014 (englisch): „Each Special Forces Group is regionally oriented to support one of the war fighting geographic combatant commanders (GCCs). Special Forces Soldiers routinely deploy in support of the GCCs of U.S. European Command, U.S. Pacific Command, U.S. Southern Command and the U.S. Central Command.“
151. [PDF] (en) Sean D. Naylor, « The spec ops stretch : Expansion plans leave many in Army Special Forces uneasy », Armed Forces Journal,‎ octobre 2006 (lire en ligne, consulté le 16 février 2014)
152. Structure. Fort Campbell. United States Army. დაარქივებულია ორიგინალიდან — 22 მარტი 2007. ციტირების თარიღი: 8 March 2007
153. "United States Army Special Forces Command". United States Army Special Operations Command. Archived from the original on 4 July 2022.
154. (en) Sean D. Naylor, « SOCom directive announces major changes », Army Times,‎ 27 août 2009 (résumé). Voir aussi les déploiements indiqués dans le document de la présentation faite par le Brigadier General Darsie Rogers à Fort Benning le 11 septembre 2014 « 1st Special Forces Command (Airborne) (Provisional) » (version du 17 novembre 2015 sur archive.org) p. 13. Pour les SFG de la garde nationale, voir (en) Joint Special Operations University Strategic Studies Department, Special Operations Forces Reference Manual : Second Edition, Hurlburt Field, Floride, The JSOU Press, 2008 (lire en ligne), p. 3-10.
155. (en) T. D. Flack, « Special Forces Detachment Korea redesignated : Ceremony in Seoul marks change to 39th Special Forces », Stars and Stripes, Pacific edition,‎ 17 octobre 2005 (lire en ligne, consulté le 16 février 2014) ; ce détachement spécifique compte 16 hommes. Pour un historique de ce détachement, voir la série d'articles commençant par (en) Jack Murphy, « Special Forces Detachment Korea: WWII and Korean War origins (Part 1) », sur SOFREP.com, 20 avril 2017 (consulté le 17 juin 2018).
156. Jean-Jacques Cécile, « Nouvelle unité de forces spéciales américaine », sur La chronique de Jean-Jacques Cécile, sur le site du défunt magazine Assaut, 18 février 2008 (consulté le 16 février 2014)
157. Loveman, Brian. For La Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latín América.. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 1999. Consultado el 12 de abril de 2013.
158. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 13 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 13 de diciembre de 2019.
159. Mahon & Romana 1972, p. 889. (Mahon, John K; Danysh, Romana (1972). Army lineage series Infantry Part I: Regular Army. Washington D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army. pp. 887–922. LCCN 74-610219. OCLC 557542564. Government Publishing Office Stock Number 0829-0082. Retrieved 11 October 2022.)
160. Mahon y Romana, 1972, p. 889.
162. Tsouras, Peter (1994). Changing Orders : The Evolution of the World's Armies, 1945 to the Present. New York: Facts on file, გვ. 91. ISBN 978-0816031221. OCLC 29389884.
163. Fox, David (8 September 2002). "Frontline: Campaign Against Terror" (Interview). PBS Frontline. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022.
164. «Interviews - Lt. Col. David Fox». PBS. 8 de setembro de 2002. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
165. Piasecki, Eugene G. (2009). ""The A Team Numbering System"". U.S. Army Special Operations Command History Office. Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
166. Lt. Col. James Brownlee. «Profile: 7th Special Forces Group (Airborne)». Military. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
167. About. ციტირების თარიღი: 2018-09-26
168. "Special Forces Operational Detachment Alpha (SFOD A) | A Teams". www.americanspecialops.com. Retrieved 23 June 2025.
169. Eric Sof (15 de abril de 2022). «Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA): Main operational element of Army Special Forces». Spec Ops Magazine. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
170. https://geekandsundry.com/how-to-roll-a-dungeons-dragons-spec-ops-a-team/
171. https://www.americanspecialops.com/photos/special-forces/special-forces-mountain.php
172. http://washingtonguard.colliertech.org/news/archive/fo-sf_mtn.shtml
173. https://www.army.mil/article/77019/climb_and_conquer_special_forces_soldiers_master_the_science_of_gaining_the_high_ground
174. https://www.americanspecialops.com/photos/special-forces/gmv-7th-special-forces.php
175. "SPECIAL FORCES REQUIREMENTS". GoArmy. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
176. https://armyranger.com/bb/viewtopic.php?f=83&t=11123
177. SF Qualifications. დაარქივებულია ორიგინალიდან — 2018-03-03. ციტირების თარიღი: 2018-03-02
178. «Special Forces Requirements». Go Army. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
179. "Special Forces Candidate Jobs (18X)". GoArmy. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022.
180. Special Forces. Training. In: goarmy.com. Archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar); abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (englisch, Das ganze Prozedere kann auf der Website eingesehen werden): „This is 24 days of training like you’ve never experienced. And it’s all about survival. Your intelligence, agility and resourcefulness will all be tested. If you make it, you can continue on to the SF Qualification Course.“
181. Über die Zugangstests der Special Forces im Allgemeinen bei www.specialoperations.com (Memento vom 4. September 2012 im Internet Archive)
182. "Interview U.S. Army General Tommy Franks". Campaign Against Terror. Frontline. PBS. 8 September 2002. Archived from the original on 3 February 2022.
183. https://www.wearethemighty.com/articles/army-special-forces
184. https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/special-forces-language-training-what-would-it-cost-to-do-it-right
185. Uno de los eventos principales de la selección es el "Robin Sage", a los candidatos se les despliega en un país ficticio llamado Pineland (en realidad un área de Carolina del Norte) para simular una misión real y descalificar a aquellos que no estén a la altura de la situación. Los graduados del curso de calificación (Q Course) completan su entrenamiento de fuerzas especiales en la participación del curso "Robin Sage"
186. https://www.army.mil/article/151795/robin_sage_exercise_setTexto grande
187. "Special Forces Tab". United States Army Institute of Heraldry. Archived from the original on 13 June 2020.
188. Balestrieri, Steve (7 April 2021). "THE YARBOROUGH KNIFE, A TRIBUTE TO THE MAN WHO SHAPED THE GREEN BERETS". SOFREP. Archived from the original on 7 April 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
189. "SOCM Course | Hurley Medical Center". www.hurleymc.com. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
190. "Special Forces Sniper Course (SFSC)". specialforcestraining.info. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
191. https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/news/army-special-operations-soldier-dies-during-freefall-training-accident-in-arizona
192. Woman Qualifies For Special Forces Training, Could Be The First Female Green Beret. Abgerufen am 28. April 2019 (englisch).
193. Gibbons-Neff, Thomas (25 February 2020). "First Woman Set to Pass Special Forces Training and Join Green Berets". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 December 2023 – via NYTimes.com.
194. Andrew, Scottie (10 July 2020). "A woman soldier is joining the Green Berets -- a first for the Army Special Forces unit". CNN. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
195. Rempfer, Kyle (10 July 2020). "New female Green Beret is a huge milestone, but she isn't the first to earn the title". Army Times. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
196. "First female Green Beret graduates Army Special Forces course". UPI. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
197. “女性兵士、米陸軍特殊部隊「グリーンベレー」に加入へ 史上初”. 2020年7月11日. 2020年7月24日閲覧.
198. Simpson, Charles M. III (1983). Inside the Green Berets: The First Thirty Years: A History of the U.S. Army Special Forces. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 9780891411635. OCLC 635308594.
199. Brown, Jerold E., ed. (2001). "Green Beret". Historical Dictionary of the United States Army (Illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 220. ISBN 9780313293221.
200. "1st Special Forces, Distinctive Unit Insignia". United States Army Institute of Heraldry. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
201. (en) « Insignia and Plaques: Special Forces », sur The Institute of Heraldry (consulté le 12 décembre 2014)
202. «1st Special Forces Group: Lineage & Honors». ARSOF History. Consultado em 31 de agosto de 2023
203. "U.S. ARMY SPECIAL FORCES GROUP (AIRBORNE)". United States Army Institute of Heraldry. Archived from the original on 11 December 2016.
204. Über die Heraldik und Symbolik des Abzeichens, siehe bei groups.sfahq.com (Memento vom 23. Juli 2008 im Internet Archive) (eingesehen am 28. Juli 2008)
205. "AIRBORNE COMMAND". United States Army Institute of Heraldry. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016.
206. «Uniform and Insignia: Wear and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia» (PDF). Exército dos Estados Unidos. 26 de janeiro de 2021. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
207. "U.S. Army Regulation 600–8–22: Personnel-General: Military Awards" (PDF). Official Department of the Army Publications and Forms. 11 December 2006. pp. 117–118. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2011.
208. «Green Beret». Chris Reeve Knives. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
209. «Ground Mobility Vehicle (GMV)». American Special Ops. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
210. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 21 de mayo de 2020. Consultado el 9 de enero de 2020.
211. https://www.americanspecialops.com/vehicles/gmv11/
212. https://www.armytimes.com/news/your-army/2019/05/21/this-could-be-the-armys-new-infantry-squad-vehicle/
213. Peter Ong (11 de março de 2020). «USSOCOM Adds Armor To Increase Crew Protection On Its M1288 GMV 1.1s». Naval News. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
214. https://www.americanspecialops.com/boats/kayak/
215. https://longhaulfoldingkayaks.com/products/mark-ii-commando
216. CIA's Mi-17 Helicopter Comes Home (29 September 2020). დაარქივებულია ორიგინალიდან — 9 December 2021.
217. «CIA's Mi-17 Helicopter Comes Home». CIA. 26 de setembro de 2019. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
218. https://fas.org/irp/agency/dod/socom/factbook-2012.pdf
219. https://slideplayer.com/slide/10223271/
220. Special Froces. Equipment. In: goarmy.com. Archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar); abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (englisch).
221. https://www.historyonthenet.com/the-vietnam-war-background-overview
222. 10 Guns of the Special Forces. დაარქივებულია ორიგინალიდან — 27 November 2021.
223. https://medium.com/war-is-boring/the-swedish-k-submachine-gun-was-so-great-that-the-americans-couldnt-help-but-copy-it-e91a83ac56c8
224. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 13 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 18 de diciembre de 2019.
225. https://www.foxnews.com/tech/weapons-upgrade-set-to-make-us-special-operations-even-more-deadly
226. Rottman, Gordon L. (25 Jul 2002). Green Beret in Vietnam 1957–73, Warrior 28. Osprey Publishing, გვ. 41. ISBN 9781855325685.
227. «Copia archivada». Archivado desde el original el 23 de junio de 2020. Consultado el 24 de enero de 2020.
228. https://medium.com/war-is-boring/u-s-commandos-had-a-love-affair-with-captured-ak-47s-87ab1e4ae2c1
229. Briscoe, Charles H. (2018). "The Special Forces Operator". Veritas. Vol. 14, no. 1. pp. 63–64. ISSN 1553-9830. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021.
230. Charles H. Briscoe (2018). «The Special Forces Operator». Veritas, Vol. 14, No. 1. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
231. USASOC (26 October 2009). "Special Forces - Shooters and thinkers". Army.mil. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021.
232. "Here's the difference between special ops and special forces". We Are The Mighty. 2 April 2018. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021.
233. «Special Forces - Shooters and thinkers». Exército dos Estados Unidos. Consultado em 1 de setembro de 2023
234. VERFASSUNG DER VEREINIGTEN STAATEN VON AMERIKA. (PDF; 201 kB) In: usa.usembassy.de. Abgerufen am 10. November 2024 (Deutsche Übersetzung der Verfassung im Internet bei der Botschaft der USA in Berlin).
235. Waller, Douglas (3 February 2003). "The CIA Secret Army". Time (necesită abonare) Arhivat în 10 mai 2011, la Wayback Machine.
236. Talslim O. Elias, Santiago Torres Bernandez: Case concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) Juristication of the Court and assembly of the application. (PDF) International Court of Justice, 26. November 1984, archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar) am 21. Oktober 2005; abgerufen am 17. August 2014 (englisch).
237. David L. Robb, Operación Hollywood, Editorial Océano, Barcelona, 2006, ISBN 84-494-2696-0
238. Informe Anual, Publicaciones Amnistía Internacional, Londres, 1976.
239. Nagendra Singh, Santiago Torres Bernandez: Case concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) Merrits. (PDF) International Court of Justice, 27. Juni 1986, archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar) am 23. Oktober 2005; abgerufen am 17. August 2014 (englisch).
240. Judgment of the International Court of Justice of 27 June 1986 concerning military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua: need for immediate compliance. Vereinte Nationen, 3. November 1986, archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar) am 8. August 2018; abgerufen am 22. September 2026 (englisch, Resolution der 41. regulären Sitzung der UNO-Generalversammlung vom 3. November 1986).
241. Gamarekian, Barbara (22 November 1988). "Washington Talk: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963; Hundreds Are in Capital for 25th Remembrance". The New York Times. p. 2. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022.
242. The Special Warfare Memorial Statue. U.S. Army, archiviert vom Original (nicht mehr online verfügbar) am 21. August 2014; abgerufen am 17. August 2014 (englisch).
243. Serrano, Nacho (11 de diciembre de 2018). «La canción militar que derrotó a los Beatles». ABC cultural. Madrid: Vocento.
244. Rislakki, Jukka: Vietnam iskelmissä. Äiti, kerro heille minkä puolesta me taistelemme. Helsingin Sanomat, 28.10.1970, s. 19. HS Aikakone (digitilaajille).