Vespasian

Ancestry and early life

Vespasian was born Titus Flavius Vespasianus in the Sabine countryside at the village of Falacrinae, located northeast of Rome near Reate, on the evening of the fifteenth day before the Kalends of December in the consulship of Quintus Sulpicius Camerinus and Gaius Poppaeus Sabinus, corresponding to 17 November 9 AD.^{[1][2][3][4][5]} His family belonged to the municipal equestrian order rather than the ancient patrician or senatorial aristocracy.^[5][6][7][8] His paternal grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, was reputed by some to have come from Transpadane Gaul as an agricultural laborer before settling in Reate, though Suetonius found no proof for this claim; Petro served as a centurion or legionary soldier in Pompey's army at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, and after his discharge became a collector of auction debts, acquiring substantial wealth through his marriage to Tertulla, who owned an estate near Cosa in Etruria.^{[6][7][9][10]}

Petro's son, Titus Flavius Sabinus, served as a customs official collecting the fortieth tax in the province of Asia, where he gained a reputation for honesty and equity.^{[6][10][11][12]} He subsequently lived in the territory of the Helvetii, engaging in small-scale banking and moneylending at Aventicum, where he eventually died.^{[6][10][11][13]} Sabinus improved the family's social standing by marrying Vespasia Polla, who came from an equestrian family in Nursia; her father, Vespasius Pollio, had served three times as a military tribune and held the post of camp prefect (praefectus castrorum), while her brother attained the praetorship and sat in the Roman Senate.^{[5][6][11][13][14]} Sabinus and Vespasia Polla had three children: an eldest daughter who died in infancy, followed by Titus Flavius Sabinus, and finally Vespasian.^{[6][10][15][16]}

Vespasian was raised in Etruria at his paternal grandmother Tertulla's country estate near Cosa, in the vicinity of modern Ansedonia.^{[2][4][17][18][19]} Throughout his adult life and during his principate, he regularly visited this childhood villa, preserving it in its original state and drinking on ceremonial occasions exclusively from a small silver cup that had belonged to his grandmother.^{[2][4][17][18][20]} In his youth, Vespasian was largely overshadowed by his older brother Sabinus, who promptly entered public life, pursued the cursus honorum, and reached high administrative and military offices.^[5][6][12] Vespasian displayed no early desire to enter senatorial politics and adopted the broad purple stripe of the senatorial togo (laticlave) only after being repeatedly prodded and taunted by his mother.^{[4][6][10][21]}

Early magistracies and court connections

Vespasian assumed the adult toga during the Liberalia festival on 17 March 26 AD.^[4] He began his official career by serving for approximately three or four years as a military tribune in Thrace around 30 AD, possibly in Legio V Macedonica.^{[4][22][23][24][25]} After completing his military service, he returned to Rome and obtained a post in the vigintivirate, likely serving as a street commissioner in charge of urban maintenance.^[22] His administration was deemed unsatisfactory by Emperor Caligula, who, angered by uncleaned streets, ordered dirt and mud to be stuffed into the folds of Vespasian's toga as a public rebuke.^[6][26]

Lacking strong patrician patronage in Rome, Vespasian stood for the quaestorship and was assigned by lot to the joint province of Crete and Cyrene for the year 34 or 35 AD.^{[4][22][23][25]} Upon his return to Rome, he sought the plebeian aedileship; he was defeated in his first attempt, but succeeded on his second campaign in 38 AD, finishing sixth and last among the successful candidates.^{[4][22][23][25][27]} He obtained the praetorship with far greater ease in 39 or 40 AD at the earliest legally permitted age of thirty, standing among the first candidates on the electoral list.^{[4][22][23][25]}

During his praetorship under Caligula, Vespasian actively sought imperial favor by proposing extraordinary gladiatorial games to celebrate the emperor's military campaign in Germany, demanding that the executed conspirators Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus be denied burial, and formally delivering a speech of gratitude before the Senate after being invited to dine at the imperial palace.^{[28][29][30][31]} His political advancement during this period was further facilitated by his long-standing romantic liaison with Antonia Caenis, a freedwoman and confidential secretary to Antonia Minor, the mother of Claudius and grandmother of Caligula, who possessed extensive influence among the imperial household and court functionaries.^{[22][32][33][34]}

Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of Flavius Liberalis, a quaestor's clerk from Ferentium.^{[35][36][37][38]} Domitilla had previously been the mistress of Statilius Capella, an equestrian from Sabratha in Roman Africa, and had only secured full Roman citizenship and freeborn legal status through a court determination.^{[35][36][37][39][40]} The marriage produced three children: Titus, born in 39 AD; Domitilla the Younger, born around 45 AD; and Domitian, born on 24 December 51 AD.^{[6][37][38][41][42]} Both his wife and daughter died before Vespasian attained imperial power in 69 AD.^{[6][37][38][43]} Following his wife's death, Vespasian resumed his relationship with Antonia Caenis, who lived with him in all but formal marital status until her death in the mid-70s AD, actively managing business affairs, selling imperial offices, and assisting his political career.^{[6][18][33][37][43][44]}

Invasion of Britannia

Following the assassination of Caligula and the accession of Claudius in 41 AD, Vespasian obtained an appointment as legate of Legio II Augusta, which was then garrisoned at Argentoratum (Strasbourg) in the military district of Upper Germany, through the patronage of the imperial freedman Tiberius Claudius Narcissus.^{[45][46][47][48]} In this post, he participated in early frontier operations along the Rhine.^[45] In 43 AD, the legion was incorporated into the four-legion expeditionary army assembled for the Roman conquest of Britain under the overall command of Aulus Plautius.^{[47][49][50][51]}

Vespasian led his legion through the initial major engagements along the Medway and Thames rivers, fighting alongside his elder brother Titus Flavius Sabinus.^[52] Plautius then assigned Vespasian to command the army's left wing and advance southwest across southern Britain, operating from bases established at Verulamium, Camulodunum, and Fishbourne.^[51][53] His probable objectives were to secure the south coast ports and harbours, the tin mines of Cornwall, and the silver and lead mines of Somerset.

Vespasian advanced from Noviomagus Reginorum (Chichester) against the hostile Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes.^{[53][54][55][56]} According to ancient accounts, he fought thirty battles, captured twenty fortified oppida or hill forts, including Maiden Castle and Hod Hill in Dorset, subdued two formidable tribal confederations, and conquered the Isle of Wight (Vectis).^{[47][49][51][53]} He established a permanent legionary fortress at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter).^{[53][54][55][56]} During these operations he suffered injuries from which he had not fully recovered until his journey to Egypt years later.^[53][55][56] For these military accomplishments, Claudius awarded him the ornamenta triumphalia upon his return to Rome in 47 AD, alongside two prestigious priesthoods in the pontifical and augural colleges.^[53][57][58]

Consulship, African proconsulship, and Nero's court

Vespasian's successes in Britain were rewarded with an appointment as suffect consul for the final two months of 51 AD alongside Claudius.^{[6][57][59][60]} Following the death of Claudius in 54 AD and the execution of Narcissus, Vespasian temporarily retired from active public life, as the young emperor Nero was dominated by his mother Agrippina the Younger, who was hostile to Narcissus's political allies and supporters of Claudius's biological son Britannicus.^{[6][59][61][62]} Until 61 AD, Vespasian waited for a provincial proconsulship, since the large number of suffect consuls meant a long wait for a province, and in the meantime he probably attended regular Senate meetings and exercised his priestly offices.^[62][63]

In 63 AD, Vespasian was appointed proconsul of Africa Province.^{[6][47][64][65][66]} Historical evaluations of his administration differ considerably: Tacitus reported that his government was regarded as infamous and odious, whereas Suetonius claimed that he governed with scrupulous integrity and honour.^{[6][47][64][66][67][68][69]} During an urban riot at Hadrumetum, the local populace pelted him with turnips.^[6][66][68] Unlike many provincial governors who enriched themselves through bribery and extortion, Vespasian did not amass private wealth and returned to Rome in severe financial distress.^[57][68][70] To avoid bankruptcy, he mortgaged his family estates to his brother Sabinus and engaged in the mule trade, earning the derisive nickname mulio (the muleteer).^{[18][68][71][72][73]}

In 66 AD, Vespasian was selected to accompany Nero on his prolonged artistic tour of Greece.^[18][57][74] His standing at court collapsed when he visibly showed boredom, left the hall, or fell asleep during Nero's artistic recitals on the lyre.^[57][74][75] Fearing the emperor's wrath, Vespasian was banished from the court circle and public receptions, retiring into seclusion in a small rural town until Nero unexpectedly summoned him for a new military command.^[57][76][77]

The First Jewish–Roman War

A widespread revolt against Roman rule erupted in Judaea in 66 AD, driven by heavy taxation, corrupt provincial governors, and militant religious factions known as Zealots and Sicarii.^{[78][79][80][81]} The rebel forces killed the local garrison and routed the Roman legions led by the governor of Syria, Gaius Cestius Gallus, capturing a legionary eagle at the pass of Beth Horon.^[47][78] Nero appointed Vespasian as legatus Augusti pro praetore to suppress the rebellion, selecting him because of his extensive military command experience and his humble pedigree, which made him appear unthreatening to the imperial throne.^{[57][78][82][83][84]}

Vespasian crossed the Hellespont and marched overland to Syria, while his elder son Titus was dispatched to Alexandria to bring Legio XV Apollinaris.^[85][86] At Antioch, Vespasian concentrated an expeditionary army composed of three legions (V Macedonica, X Fretensis, and XV Apollinaris), twenty-three infantry cohorts, six cavalry alae, and large auxiliary contingents furnished by client rulers, including King Agrippa II of Chalcis, Antiochus IV of Commagene, and Sohaemus of Emesa, fielding approximately 60,000 troops.^{[47][57][85][87][88]} In the spring of 67 AD, Vespasian invaded Galilee, capturing and burning Gabara and enslaving its male inhabitants.^[89] He subsequently besieged Iotapata (Yodfat), a fortress held by the Galilean rebel commander Joseph ben Matthias.^[47][89]

The siege of Iotapata lasted forty-seven days, during which Vespasian sustained wounds from a stone to his knee and arrows to his foot and shield.^{[47][90][91][92][93]} The town fell by betrayal on 2 July 67 AD, and Roman troops massacred an estimated 40,000 defenders and inhabitants.^[90][93] Joseph ben Matthias surrendered, claiming the status of a prophet, and predicted that Vespasian would attain the imperial throne.^{[94][95][96][97][98][99]} Impressed by the prediction, Vespasian spared his life, placed him in protective custody, and later granted him Roman citizenship and freedom as Flavius Josephus.^{[95][96][97][99]}

Following the fall of Iotapata, Roman forces subjugated the remaining rebel strongholds in Galilee.^{[100][101][102]} Tiberias surrendered peacefully, while Taricheae was taken by assault, resulting in the sale of 30,000 captives into slavery and the dispatch of 6,000 prisoners to work on Nero's Corinth canal project.^[100] After a difficult siege in which Vespasian's troops were momentarily repulsed, Gamala fell on 20 October 67 AD, followed by the peaceful surrender of Gischala.^{[101][102][103]} In 68 AD, Vespasian systematically reduced rebel holdouts across Perea, Idumea, and the lower Jordan Valley, capturing Jericho on 21 June 68 AD.^[104][105] According to Josephus, after Jericho was taken, Vespasian had a group of Jews who could not swim fettered and thrown into the Dead Sea to test its buoyancy, and the captives rose to the surface. While preparing for the final siege of Jerusalem, Vespasian received word of Nero's suicide in Rome and immediately suspended offensive military operations to await political instructions.^{[81][105][106][107]}

The Year of the Four Emperors

Nero's suicide in June 68 AD ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty and plunged the Roman Empire into civil war.^{[108][109][110][111]} Galba assumed the principate in Rome and was acknowledged by Vespasian, who sent Titus to Italy to convey congratulations and confirm his command in Judaea.^{[81][107][111][112]} In January 69 AD, while Titus was in Corinth, news arrived that Galba had been murdered by supporters of Otho, who seized the throne, while the Rhine legions declared Aulus Vitellius emperor.^{[81][107][109][112][113]} Titus aborted his voyage and returned to his father in Caesarea, and the Judaean legions initially swore allegiance to Otho.^{[107][112][113][114]} After Vitellius's army defeated Otho's at the First Battle of Bedriacum in April 69 AD, Vespasian led his army in the oath to Vitellius in the summer, but discontent grew in his legions, whose soldiers wanted their own commander as emperor, and Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, was ready to support Vespasian and may have secretly encouraged the mutinous mood.^[114][115] Another account says that Vespasian officially recognised neither Otho nor Vitellius, although his legions had sworn the oath to Otho.^[113]

Vespasian and Mucianus met at Mount Carmel to coordinate plans for imperial power.^{[115][116][117]} Mucianus, who possessed three legions and deep political ties to commanders across the empire but lacked natural heirs, offered his full backing to Vespasian, whose adult sons Titus and Domitian guaranteed dynastic continuity.^{[108][114][115][118]} The opening move came on 1 July 69 AD at Alexandria, where Tiberius Julius Alexander, the equestrian prefect of Egypt, administered the oath of loyalty to Vespasian before his two legions, establishing 1 July as Vespasian's official dies imperii.^{[81][108][110][119][120][121]} The Judaean legions at Caesarea followed on 3 July, and Mucianus's Syrian army took the oath on 15 July.^[119][122] Other accounts give different dates: according to Suetonius the Judaean army swore on 11 July, and another account has the Syrian legions joining on 7 July and Vespasian's own legions on 11 July.^{[110][121][122]} Allied client monarchs, including Herod Agrippa II, Antiochus IV of Commagene, and Sohaemus of Emesa, pledged military and financial support, giving Vespasian control over nine legions and the eastern Mediterranean basin.^{[119][121][122][123]}

At a meeting in Berytus, Vespasian and Mucianus agreed a plan: Vespasian would go to Alexandria and cut off the Egyptian grain supply to Rome, while Mucianus would lead the main force through Asia Minor, cross to the Balkans at Byzantium, and advance to Dyrrhachium to organise a naval blockade of the Italian coast, so that the Vitellians would have to surrender without a fight.^[124][125] Another account has Vespasian take counsel with his closest advisers at Antioch and send Mucianus overland to Italy through Cappadocia and Phrygia.^[126][127] Titus was entrusted with completing the siege of Jerusalem.^{[81][127][128]} The strategic timeline was altered when the legions of Moesia, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, devoted to Otho's memory and hostile to Vitellius, declared for Vespasian.^{[120][129][130]} Acting on his own initiative and against Vespasian's instruction to wait for Mucianus, their commander Marcus Antonius Primus led the Danubian legions into Italy from the north-east.^{[81][129][130]}

On 24 October 69 AD, Primus's Danubian army encountered Vitellius's legions in the Second Battle of Bedriacum, winning a complete victory after a night of intense combat.^{[81][130][131][132]} The victorious Flavian troops stormed and sacked the wealthy city of Cremona, then advanced southward toward Rome.^{[81][131][133]} Vitellius attempted to abdicate in exchange for safety and an offer of 100 million sesterces arranged with Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus, who was the city prefect of Rome, but Vitellian soldiers and supporters refused the terms and besieged Sabinus on the Capitoline Hill.^{[131][134][135][136][137]} In the ensuing conflict, the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was destroyed by fire, Sabinus was murdered, and Domitian escaped death by disguising himself as a priest of Isis.^{[81][131][135][137][138]} On 20 December 69 AD, Primus's army fought its way into Rome, hunted down Vitellius, and dragged him to the Forum, where he was executed and cast into the Tiber.^{[81][108][131][135][139][140]} On 21 December, the Senate passed a decree recognizing Vespasian as emperor and designating him and Titus as consuls for 70 AD, while Domitian assumed the praetorship with consular power.^{[81][108][140][141][142][143]}

Stay in Alexandria and arrival in Rome

While civil war raged in Italy, Vespasian remained in Alexandria to control grain shipments and consolidate political backing in Egypt.^{[81][108][127][132]} Upon receiving news of Vitellius's demise, he immediately dispatched grain transports to alleviate famine in Rome and published an edict repealing Nero's treason legislation.^[144] In Alexandria, Vespasian visited the Temple of Serapis, where he experienced a private religious vision.^[145] Two local men, one blind and one lame, approached him, stating that the god Serapis had commanded them in dreams to seek the emperor's healing touch; after consulting physicians who confirmed their infirmities were curable, Vespasian moistened the blind man's eyes with his spittle and stepped on the crippled man's limb with his heel, reportedly restoring the sight of the one and the mobility of the other.^{[132][145][146][147][148]} He was hailed as pharaoh and proclaimed the son of the creator-god Amun.^[149]

Vespasian's departure from Egypt was delayed until the summer of 70 AD, according to Tacitus by bad weather, though modern historians have suggested that he was continuing to consolidate support among the Egyptians before departing.^{[150][151][152][153][154]} When he imposed stringent new taxes and property surveys on Alexandria, civil riots broke out and grain shipments were temporarily disrupted before order was restored.^{[81][150][155]} In mid-70 AD, Vespasian sailed from Alexandria on a cargo vessel to Rhodes, traversed Greece, crossed to Corcyra, made landfall in southern Italy at the Iapygian promontory, and proceeded overland to Rome, entering the capital in October 70 AD amid celebratory public receptions.^{[81][143][156][157][158]}

The Lex de imperio Vespasiani and constitutional settlement

On proclaiming himself emperor in July 69 AD, Vespasian at once took the name Imperator Titus Flavius Vespasianus Caesar, and at the end of August he adopted the form Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus, stressing his continuity with Augustus; scholars note that he took the name Augustus without the Senate's sanction, since the Senate then supported Vitellius.^[159][160] On 22 December 69 AD, the senators granted him all the honours and titles due to a princeps; part of the decree survives, and it was probably ratified by the popular assembly and so became law as the Lex de imperio Vespasiani.^{[143][161][162]} A surviving bronze fragment of this statute, rediscovered in 1346 by Cola di Rienzo at the Basilica of Saint John Lateran and preserved in the Capitoline Museums, explicitly enumerates the emperor's prerogative powers.^[162]

Under the provisions of the statute, Vespasian received the legal authority to conclude international treaties, convene and preside over the Senate, commend candidates for public magistracies, extend the sacred boundary (pomerium) of Rome, and enact any administrative or legal measure he judged beneficial to the public welfare.^{[143][163][164]} The law formally exempted him from specific republican statutes and plebiscites while transferring all legal powers previously granted to Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius; the names of Caligula, Nero, Galba, Otho, and Vitellius were excluded from the text.^{[143][163][165]} Modern scholars interpret this legislation as a formal institutionalization of the principate, transforming what had been an informal, charismatic personal dominance into an explicitly codified constitutional office.^[143][166]

To secure domestic administrative control, Vespasian held the consulship eight times during his ten-year principate (in 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, and 79 AD), serving alongside his son Titus in seven of these terms and Domitian in one.^[167] In 73–74 AD, Vespasian and Titus assumed the office of censor, a magistracy reviving Augustus's moral and civic authority to conduct a census of Roman citizens, purge unworthy members from the Senate and equestrian orders, and replenish the ruling elite with Italian and provincial notables.^{[81][168][169]} Vespasian received twenty imperial military salutations over the course of his reign and maintained tribunician power renewed annually on 1 July, dating his authority from his military acclamation rather than senatorial confirmation.^{[81][110][170][171]}

Dynastic policy and the succession

Vespasian made dynastic succession an explicit component of his political programme from the beginning of his rule.^{[81][172][173][174]} He openly declared before the Senate that either his sons would succeed him or nobody would.^[81][172] Titus was systematically elevated to the status of co-ruler: he shared consulships and the censorship with his father, was granted tribunician power in 71 AD, served as praetorian prefect, managed court paperwork, read imperial speeches before the Senate, and had received fourteen imperial salutations by 79 AD.^{[81][143][172][173]}

Domitian was named Caesar and hailed as Princeps Iuventutis (leader of the youth), receiving memberships in the major priestly colleges (pontifices, augures, and Arval Brethren) and holding several suffect consulships.^{[142][173][175]} Both brothers issued coins in their own names bearing their portraits.^[173] Suetonius writes of continual conspiracies, which scholars link to the senators' discontent at having Titus imposed on them as successor.^[172][176]

Provincial revolts and pacification

In the western provinces, the political turmoil of 69 AD provoked the Batavian rebellion in Lower Germany and northern Gaul.^{[81][177][178]} Led by Gaius Julius Civilis, an auxiliary prefect of Batavian noble descent, and supported by Julius Sabinus of the Lingones, the insurgents destroyed Roman camps along the Rhine, routed or absorbed four Roman legions (I Germanica, IV Macedonica, XV Primigenia, and XVI Gallica), and proclaimed an independent Gallic empire (imperium Galliarum).^{[177][179][180]} Vespasian dispatched his kinsman Quintus Petillius Cerialis to the Rhine with eight legions; Cerialis defeated Civilis in battles at Trier and Castra Vetera in late 70 AD, ending the insurrection and restoring Roman authority along the Rhine frontier.^{[81][178][181][182]}

Julius Sabinus, who had proclaimed himself Caesar in Gaul in 70 AD, saying that he was a son of Julius Caesar, stayed in hiding with his wife Epponina for nine years. Their hiding place was discovered in 79 AD; Epponina threw herself at Vespasian's feet with their two children and begged for clemency for her husband, but Vespasian had both Sabinus and Epponina put to death and spared the two children.

In the East, the siege of Jerusalem culminated in the summer of 70 AD under Titus's command.^{[81][127][128][183][184]} Roman legions breached the three defensive walls, stormed the Antonia Fortress in June, set fire to the Second Temple on 10 August, and captured the Upper City in September.^[81][184] The city and its temple were demolished, and an estimated 100,000 prisoners were enslaved.^[184][185] Rebel resistance persisted in isolated fortresses until Flavius Silva captured the mountain stronghold of Masada in 73 AD.^[184][186] In 71 AD, Vespasian and Titus celebrated a triumph in Rome, riding in a chariot with Domitian following on a white horse, and after the procession one of the rebel leaders, Simon bar Giora, was executed in the Forum.^{[187][188][189][190]} Following the triumph, Vespasian officially closed the doors of the Temple of Janus, symbolizing universal peace across the empire.^[160][190]

Along the lower Danube, barbarian incursions disturbed Moesia during the civil wars.^[191][192] In late 69 AD, Dacian tribes attacked Roman garrisons, requiring Mucianus to divert Legio VI Ferrata to repel them.^[191][193] In 70 AD, the Sarmatian Roxolani crossed the Danube into Moesia, killed a large number of the troops guarding the frontier, and killed the governor Gaius Fonteius Agrippa, who had attacked them.^{[192][193][194]} Vespasian dispatched Rubrius Gallus to Moesia; Gallus inflicted a decisive defeat on the Sarmatians and constructed stronger stone fortifications along the riverbank to secure the frontier.^[192][194]

In Pontus, Anicetus, a royal freedman of the late king Polemon II, organized a revolt in 69 AD under the pretext of supporting Vitellius, capturing Trapezus and burning the Roman naval squadron on the Black Sea.^[195] Vespasian sent a detachment under Virdius Geminus, who defeated Anicetus and had him executed by local tribal allies.^[195]

Eastern provincial policy and foreign relations

From the time of Vespasian, Judaea was governed by a legate rather than a procurator, and a legion was permanently stationed in the province.^[196][197] Emmaus was transformed into a colony for 800 discharged legionary veterans, Caesarea Maritima received colonial status, and the ancestral Jewish high priesthood was abolished.^[196][197] According to Eusebius, Vespasian ordered all descendants of the royal line of David to be hunted down; several modern historians have suggested that he was probably seeking to suppress rival claimants arising from that dynasty.^{[196][198][199]} The Jewish temple at Leontopolis in Egypt was shuttered and despoiled in 73 AD.^[149][199]

Vespasian reorganized the eastern frontier against Parthia.^{[200][201][202]} In 72 AD, Caesennius Paetus, the governor of Syria, accused King Antiochus IV of Commagene of conspiring with Parthia; Paetus invaded Commagene with Legio VI Ferrata, forcing Antiochus to flee to Cilicia while his sons Epiphanes and Callinicus crossed the Euphrates to seek asylum with King Vologases I.^{[203][204][205]} Vespasian brought Antiochus to Rome, granted him an imperial stipend and palace, and reconciled with his sons.^[206] Commagene was annexed to Syria, and its capital Samosata was renamed Flavia Samosata and garrisoned by Legio XVI Flavia Firma.^[169][203]

Lesser Armenia was annexed and incorporated into Cappadocia, and Cappadocia itself was merged with Galatia under a senior consular legate, defended by Legio XII Fulminata at Melitene and Legio XVI Flavia Firma at Samosata.^[200][207] Extensive military roads were constructed to connect the Euphrates forts with Syrian bases and the Black Sea coast.^[201][203] When nomadic Alans invaded Parthia and Media Atropatene around 75 AD, King Vologases I requested Roman auxiliary troops under the command of one of Vespasian's sons; Vespasian declined to intervene, maintaining formal peace with Parthia despite diplomatic friction.^{[208][209][210][211][212]} Relations between Rome and Iberia under Vespasian were friendly and allied: a building stone found at Mtskheta in 1867 carries a Greek inscription of 75 AD recording that Vespasian, Titus and Domitian strengthened the walls for Mithridates, king of the Iberians, son of King Pharasmanes, friend of Caesar and of the Romans.

Inside the Mediterranean perimeter, Vespasian revoked provincial privileges and tax immunities granted by Nero.^{[18][169][213][214]} Achaea, Lycia, Rhodes, Byzantium, Samos, and Cilicia Trachea were stripped of autonomous status, transformed into regular provinces, and subjected to imperial tribute.^{[18][169][214][215]} Lycia was permanently united with Pamphylia, and a separate administrative district was established for the Hellespont.^{[207][214][215]}

Western provincial policy and expansion

In the western provinces, Vespasian advanced the Romanization and economic development of frontier territories.^[216] In Upper Germany, the Roman army occupied and fortified the Agri Decumates, the wedge of land between the upper Rhine and Danube, shortening communications between Mogontiacum and Raetia.^{[81][217][218]} Under the consular legate Gnaeus Pinarius Cornelius Clemens in 74 AD, Roman forces defeated trans-Rhenane tribes, for which Clemens received the ornamenta triumphalia, and constructed military forts at Rottweil, Hüfingen, Waldmössingen, Offenburg, and Riegel.^{[217][218][219]}

In Britain, Vespasian initiated an aggressive campaign of consolidation and conquest to pacify native tribes following the aftermath of Boudica's revolt.^{[81][220][221]} Quintus Petillius Cerialis, serving as governor from 71 to 74 AD, campaigned against the Brigantes of northern England with Legio IX Hispana and Legio XX Valeria Victrix, the latter commanded by Gnaeus Julius Agricola.^[220][221] Sextus Julius Frontinus, governor from 74 to 77 AD, subdued the Silures in South Wales.^[220] In 77 or 78 AD, Agricola was appointed governor of Britain, subduing the Ordovices in North Wales, conquering the island of Mona (Anglesey), constructing forums and paved roads, and advancing Roman outposts toward Caledonia.^{[81][220][222][223][224]}

In the Danubian provinces, Vespasian established colonies of veteran legionaries at Sirmium and Siscia in Pannonia, upgraded legionary fortresses at Carnuntum and Vindobona, and elevated several settlements in Dalmatia to municipal rank under the Flavian name.^[225] In North Africa, after the proconsul Lucius Calpurnius Piso was murdered during the civil wars, Vespasian ended the divided command between the senatorial governor and the commander of Legio III Augusta; the nomadic Garamantes were defeated, and the province was organized into Old Africa and New Africa, combining military garrisons with local tribal treaties.^[226]

Vespasian's most sweeping civic reform occurred in the Iberian peninsula: in 73 or 74 AD, as attested by Pliny the Elder, he promulgated an imperial edict extending the Latin right (ius Latii minor) to all free inhabitants of Hispania.^{[81][227][228]} This measure permitted approximately 350 native communities to organize themselves as chartered Roman municipia with formal local magistracies, granting hereditary Roman citizenship to all municipal magistrates upon completion of their annual terms.^{[227][228][229]} This widespread urbanization stimulated Latin linguistic adoption and civic development, creating an extensive pool of eligible citizens for legionary recruitment and paving the way for the emergence of Spanish families within the senatorial aristocracy.^[229][230]

Military reorganization

The civil war of 68–69 AD exposed grave flaws in military discipline and the risks of legionary political involvement.^[180][231] To re-establish order, Vespasian permanently disbanded four disgraced legions that had compromised their oaths during the Batavian insurrection (Legio I Germanica, Legio IV Macedonica, Legio XV Primigenia, and Legio XVI Gallica).^[180] He raised two new legions bearing his family name, Legio IV Flavia Felix and Legio XVI Flavia Firma, regularized Legio II Adiutrix from naval recruits of the Ravenna fleet, and reconstituted Galba's VII Galbiana as Legio VII Gemina, bringing the total standing force of the empire to twenty-nine legions.^{[180][232][233]}

To prevent future military mutinies, large multi-legion camps along the Rhine were broken up and replaced by smaller, permanent stone fortresses garrisoned by single legions.^[234] The provincial auxiliary forces were thoroughly reorganized: units were deliberately recruited from mixed ethnicities and deployed far from their tribal homelands, auxiliary cohorts were expanded to milliary strength (1,000 men), and command was reserved exclusively for Roman equestrian officers and experienced centurions.^{[234][235][236][237]}

Vespasian also reformed legionary recruitment, shifting the geographic base from Italy, whose military manpower was largely exhausted, toward Romanized western provinces such as Baetica, Narbonensis, and Gallia Cisalpina.^[238][239] The Praetorian Guard, which Vitellius had expanded to sixteen oversized cohorts, was cashiered and reorganized into nine quingenary cohorts (each comprising 500 men), matching the Augustan establishment.^{[240][241][242][243]} These reforms succeeded in stamping out major military rebellions for more than a century.^[244]

Financial administration and taxation

Vespasian inherited an imperial treasury depleted by Nero's palace construction and the devastation of the civil wars.^{[155][245][246][247]} In a public address before the Senate, he stated that the state required forty billion sesterces to remain solvent.^{[248][249][250]} He instituted a strict fiscal program characterized by administrative retrenchment, the reduction of court expenses, and the recovery of tax arrears dating back to Galba's principate.^{[155][247][251][252]}

Vespasian revived lapsed taxes and introduced new imposts, doubled provincial tributes in certain regions, and conducted comprehensive cadastral surveys in Egypt, Spain, and Italy.^{[81][150][155][247][252][253]} He reclaimed unallocated public lands (subseciva) in Italy that had been encroached upon by private landowners, though he paused the policy when Italian municipalities protested.^[81] He introduced separate treasury offices in Rome, including the fiscus Alexandrinus and fiscus Asiaticus, to handle provincial poll-tax revenues and state grain sales.^[252] Following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, Vespasian instituted the fiscus Iudaicus, mandating that all Jews throughout the empire pay an annual tax of two drachmas to the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in Rome instead of the Jerusalem temple.^{[18][81][197][252]}

To increase revenue, Vespasian reintroduced a tax on the commercial collection of urine from public restrooms and sewer basins (vectigal urinae), where urine was gathered for laundering, leather tanning, and textile processing.^{[254][255][256]} When Titus criticized the tax as beneath imperial dignity, Vespasian held a coin from the first installment under his son's nose and asked if it smelled foul; when Titus replied that it did not, Vespasian remarked that it nevertheless derived from urine.^{[18][254][255][257][258]} This incident gave rise to the Latin proverb pecunia non olet (money does not stink), and inspired the modern Romance language terms for public urinals, such as the Italian vespasiano and the French vespasienne.^{[18][254][255][258][259]}

Ancient authors criticized Vespasian's parsimony, accusing him of selling magistracies, accepting bribes for judicial rulings, and promoting rapacious provincial officials like sponges so that he might squeeze them through extortion courts once they had fattened themselves.^{[18][260][261][262][263]} During his reign, he debased the silver denarius, reducing its metallic purity from 93.5 percent to 90 percent and lowering the silver weight from 2.97 grams to 2.87 grams.^[264][265] Nevertheless, both Suetonius and Tacitus acknowledged that his rigorous financial management cleared imperial debts, restored solvency, and generated resources for extensive public works.^{[81][155][248][255][266]}

Building programme and urban reconstruction

Upon entering Rome, Vespasian addressed the urban devastation left by the Great Fire of 64 AD and the fighting on the Capitoline Hill in 69 AD.^{[169][267][268][269]} He granted authorization for individuals to occupy vacant urban lots and construct buildings if the original proprietors failed to do so.^[267] On the Capitoline, he led the reconstruction of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, carrying the first basket of rubble on his own shoulders, and restored three thousand bronze tablets inscribed with senatorial decrees, plebiscites, and imperial treaties that had been melted in the fire.^{[18][81][169][267][270]}

Vespasian began construction of the Forum of Peace (Forum of Vespasian), a new forum with a temple dedicated to Peace, which Pliny the Elder counted among the wonders of the world.^{[268][269][271][272][273]} The complex incorporated the Templum Pacis, the Library of Peace for urban administrative archives, and public galleries displaying Greek artworks collected by Nero alongside the golden treasures, sacred trumpets, and menorah seized from the Temple in Jerusalem.^{[18][269][274]} On the Caelian Hill, he completed the monumental Temple of the Deified Claudius, which had been founded by Agrippina the Younger but dismantled by Nero for his private palace.^{[267][268][271][275]}

Vespasian's most celebrated construction project was the Flavian Amphitheatre, known today as the Colosseum, begun around 72 to 75 AD using proceeds from the Jewish War booty.^{[269][271][273][276][277][278][279]} The structure was situated on the drained bed of Nero's private artificial lake inside the Domus Aurea, returning public land to the citizens of Rome.^{[269][273][275]} Designed to hold approximately 50,000 spectators and accommodating massive gladiatorial spectacles, the amphitheatre required 100,000 cubic meters of travertine limestone and hundreds of tons of iron clamps.^{[269][279][280]} While Vespasian did not live to see its completion, it was inaugurated under his son Titus in 80 AD.^[271]

Elsewhere in Rome, Vespasian converted the colossal bronze statue of Nero on the Via Sacra into a depiction of the sun god Apollo by adding a radiate crown, dedicated a new stage for the Theatre of Marcellus, restored the Temple of Vesta and the Temple of Honos and Virtus, and funded new public baths.^{[267][268][281][282]} Across Italy, he funded the repaving and maintenance of major arterial highways, notably the Via Appia, Via Flaminia, and Via Salaria, and subsidized the reconstruction of municipal buildings damaged by earthquakes and fires.^{[281][283][284][285]}

Judicial and administrative reforms

The disruptions of the civil wars had created a massive backlog of pending lawsuits in Rome's courts.^[18][286] To resolve this crisis, Vespasian appointed a special commission of judges chosen by lot to adjudicate property restitution claims arising from wartime looting, directing them to expedite cases within the jurisdiction of the centumviral court and reduce legal disputes to manageable proportions.^{[18][286][287]}

He sponsored senatorial decrees addressing social morals and credit practices: one measure established that any freeborn woman who entered into cohabitation with another person's slave without the owner's consent would be reduced to slave status, while another prohibited usurious lenders from recovering debts contracted by sons under parental authority (patria potestas), even after the death of their fathers.^[288] Vespasian also reformed administrative personnel, replacing imperial freedmen in senior treasury posts with knights (equites), thereby establishing an official equestrian civil service.^[289][290]

Domestic opposition and conspiracies

Despite maintaining courteous relations with the Senate, Vespasian faced ideological opposition from Stoic and Cynic philosophers who glorified republican liberty and criticized hereditary autocracy.^{[291][292][293][294]} The leading republican critic in the Senate was Gaius Helvidius Priscus, the son-in-law of Thrasea Paetus; Priscus addressed Vespasian as a private citizen, omitted his imperial titles from praetorian edicts, and publicly challenged him during senatorial debates.^{[292][293][295]} Vespasian eventually banished Priscus and later ordered his execution, though Suetonius claimed that the emperor attempted to recall the assassins after receiving false reports that Priscus was already dead.^{[293][295][296][297]}

In 71 and 74 AD, Vespasian expelled Cynic and Stoic philosophers along with astrologers from Rome and Italy, exempting only Gaius Musonius Rufus.^[293][294] When the Cynic philosopher Demetrius encountered the emperor and hurled insults at him, Vespasian refrained from violence, sending him a message stating that he did not slay a barking dog.^[298][299] Writers and philosophers deemed critical of Flavian rule faced the confiscation and destruction of their works.^[300][301]

Suetonius noted that Vespasian was confronted with constant conspiracies against his life, though only one major plot is documented in surviving sources.^{[172][174][302]} In 78 or 79 AD, Aulus Caecina Alienus and Titus Clodius Eprius Marcellus, prominent consulars who had previously supported the Flavian regime, formed a conspiracy to assassinate the emperor.^{[81][302][303]} Caecina was killed without trial on the orders of Titus, and Marcellus took his own life after being condemned by the Senate.^[303]

Cultural and religious policies

Vespasian fostered education, literature, and the arts through public funding.^{[283][304][305]} He established the first state-salaried public chairs of rhetoric in Rome, allocating annual stipends of 100,000 sesterces from the imperial treasury to Greek and Latin rhetoricians; the Spanish-born orator Quintilian was the first instructor to receive this official imperial salary.^{[304][305][306]} Vespasian also distributed grants of up to 1,000 gold pieces to poets and sculptors, provided cash allowances to impoverished consular senators to maintain their statutory property qualifications, and subsidized performing artists such as the tragic actor Apelles and the lyre players Terpnus and Diodorus.^{[283][285][305]}

Major literary works were composed under Flavian patronage: Pliny the Elder completed his thirty-seven-volume Naturalis Historia during Vespasian's reign, dedicating the encyclopedia to Titus.^[304] Flavius Josephus wrote his history of the Jewish War under Flavian protection, presenting Vespasian as a humane and providential ruler.^{[94][97][307][308]} Tacitus, whose senatorial career was initiated under Vespasian, noted that the ancient historians writing during the Flavian era depicted Vespasian favorably while denouncing his predecessors.^[309][310]

In religious administration, Vespasian maintained a traditional policy, utilizing the imperial cult to legitimize his new dynasty.^{[311][312][313]} He unified regional priesthoods across the provinces, establishing flamines Augustales to oversee civic ceremonies dedicated to the imperial house and the personification of Rome.^[312] Vespasian embraced his associations with the Alexandrian deities Serapis and Isis, minting imperial coinage featuring their iconography; on the night before their joint triumph in 71 AD, Vespasian and Titus kept vigil in the Temple of Isis in the Campus Martius.^[156]

Personal habits and character

Vespasian was described by contemporary writers as a square-shouldered man of medium stature, possessing firm, robust limbs, thinning hair, and a face with a perpetually strained expression.^{[314][315][316]} He enjoyed good physical health throughout his life, maintaining it through regular bodily massage and observing a day of fasting every month.^[314] His daily routine was industrious and methodical: he rose before dawn, read his official correspondence and dispatch reports, received close friends and officials such as Pliny the Elder, dressed without assistance, rode in an open litter, took an afternoon nap, and relaxed with concubines who took Caenis's place after her death.^[317][318]

At banquets and social gatherings, Vespasian was known for his plain manners, affable demeanor, and coarse, earthy wit, frequently indulging in self-deprecating humor and vulgar jokes.^{[304][315][319][320]} When Mestrius Florus, a consular purist, corrected the emperor for pronouncing the word for wagons as the common dialect plostra rather than the refined plaustra, Vespasian greeted Florus the next day by addressing him as Flaurus, playing on the Greek word phlauros, meaning worthless or shabby.^[321] He remained devoid of aristocratic pretension, openly laughed at genealogists who attempted to trace the Flavian lineage to Hercules, and made no effort to conceal his modest origins or former mule-trading career.^[322]

Illness, death, and deification

During his ninth consulship in 79 AD, Vespasian fell ill while visiting Campania.^[323][324] He returned briefly to Rome and then traveled to his summer retreat at Aquae Cutiliae, near Reate, where he regularly spent the hot season.^{[323][324][325]} His condition deteriorated rapidly, exacerbated by frequent bathing in the cold thermal mineral waters.^[323][324] When observers pointed out a comet blazing in the sky as an omen of a monarch's death, he jokingly dismissed the concern, stating that the long-haired star concerned the king of Parthia, who wore his hair long, whereas he himself was bald.^[324] Realizing that his illness was fatal, he quipped about the Roman custom of posthumous deification: "Vae, puto deus fio" (Dear me, I think I'm becoming a god).^{[255][258][323][326]}

Even while confined to bed, Vespasian continued to receive diplomatic embassies and attend to imperial dispatches.^[325][327] Seized by a sudden, violent attack of bowel inflammation and diarrhea that caused him to faint, he struggled to rise, declaring that an emperor ought to die standing.^{[323][325][327][328][329]} While attempting to rise on his feet, he collapsed and died in the arms of his attendants on 23 June 79 AD (or 24 June 79 AD according to alternate manuscript traditions), at the age of sixty-nine years, seven months, and seven days.^{[323][325][327][330]}

At his funeral, the chief mime Favor, who by custom represented the emperor and imitated his words and gestures, publicly asked the officials how much the funeral procession cost; told ten million sesterces, he cried out that they should give him one hundred thousand and then throw him into the Tiber. Cassius Dio recorded later rumors suggesting that Vespasian may have been poisoned at a banquet by Titus, a claim that Emperor Hadrian, among others, repeated.^[331] Vespasian was divinized by the Senate as Divus Vespasianus, his ashes were placed in the Mausoleum of Augustus, and Titus succeeded him without resistance as the first Roman emperor to directly succeed his biological father.^{[323][332][333][334][335]}

Historical assessment

Ancient historians viewed Vespasian as one of the most effective and stabilizing rulers of the early Roman Empire.^[322][336] Tacitus famously remarked that Vespasian was the only Roman emperor who changed for the better during his tenure of power.^[81][337] Suetonius viewed his decade on the throne as an era of reconstruction that rescued the empire from near-ruin.^[336] Sextus Aurelius Victor commended him for extending imperial care to all municipal communities governed by Roman law.^[338]

Modern scholarship emphasizes that the Flavian accession represented a fundamental shift away from the dynastic monopoly of the patrician Julio-Claudian nobility toward the integration of municipal and provincial elites into the imperial government.^{[339][340][341]} By broadening the social base of the Senate to include wealthy families from northern Italy, Gaul, and Spain, Vespasian laid the institutional foundation that enabled provincial senators, such as Trajan and Hadrian, to achieve imperial power three decades later.^{[81][340][342]} His fiscal restructuring, combined with the stabilization of the Rhine and Danube frontiers and the institutionalization of the principate under the Lex de imperio Vespasiani, ended the anarchic trauma of the civil wars and inaugurated a prolonged era of administrative security.^{[81][143][343][344][345]}

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2. Светоний, 1999, Божественный Веспасиан, 2, 1. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
3. Pfeiffer, 2009, s. 8. (Pfeiffer S. Die Zeit der Flavier. — Darmstadt: WBG, 2009. — 134 с. — ISBN 978-3-534-20894-4.)
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5. Svetonio, Vita di Vespasiano, 1.
6. Morgan (2006), 170–173
7. Светоний, 1999, Божественный Веспасиан, 1, 2 — 2, 1. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
8. Pfeiffer, 2009, s. 7—8. (Pfeiffer S. Die Zeit der Flavier. — Darmstadt: WBG, 2009. — 134 с. — ISBN 978-3-534-20894-4.)
9. Flavius 206, 1909, s. 2626. (Weinand R. Flavius 206 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2623—2695.)
10. Morgan (2006), blz. 170-3
11. Светоний, 1999, Божественный Веспасиан, 1, 2—3. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
12. Girod 2019, p. 305.
13. Sueton, Vespasian 1,2–4; siehe auch den Stammbaum der Flavier in Barbara Levick: Vespasian. London/New York 1999.
14. Flavius 206, 1909, s. 2626—2627. (Weinand R. Flavius 206 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2623—2695.)
15. Светоний, 1999, Божественный Веспасиан, 1, 3; 2, 1. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
16. Flavius 206, 1909, s. 2627. (Weinand R. Flavius 206 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2623—2695.)
17. Suetonius, Vesp., p. 2
18. Suétone, Vie des douze Césars, traduction Désiré Nisard, 1855.
19. Suetonius, Vesp., str. 2
20. Suetonius, cap. 2, ver. 1 (Suetonius (la), De Vita XII Caesarum : Liber VIII Divus Vespasianus, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#2)
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24. Levick 1999, p. 8. Sembra che Vespasiano abbia militato come tribuno laticlavio nella legio V Macedonica, che, quarant'anni più tardi, partecipò all'assedio di Gerusalemme del 70. ((EN) Barbara Levick, Vespasian, London & New York, Routledge, 1999, ISBN 0-415-16618-7.)
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28. Светоний, 1999, Божественный Веспасиан, 2, 2—3. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
29. Tacitus, Historien 4,15.
30. Sueton, Vespasian 2,3.
31. Girod 2019, p. 307.
32. Brian W. Jones: The Emperor Domitian. Routledge, London u. a. 1992, S. 3 f.
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34. Girod 2019, p. 306-307.
35. Suetonius, Vesp. 3
36. Светоний, 1999, Божественный Веспасиан, 3. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
37. Svetonio, Vita di Vespasiano, 3.
38. Barbara Levick: Vespasian. 2. Auflage. Routledge, London/New York 2017, S. 15.
39. Sueton, Vespasian 3.
40. Epitome de Caesaribus 10,1 nennt sie eine „Freigelassene“. Barbara Levick: Vespasian. London/New York 1999, S. 12 folgert, dass sie die Tochter einer Freigelassenen war, die latinisches Bürgerrecht besaß.
41. Flavius 207, 1909, s. 2697. (Weinand R. Flavius 207 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2695—2729.)
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50. Tacito, De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae 13.5
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53. A History of Britain, Richard Dargie (2007), p. 20
54. Dargie, 2007, p. 20.
55. Zgodovina Britanije, Richard Dargie (2007), str. 20
56. A History of Britain, Richard Dargie (2007), blz. 20
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58. Girod 2019, p. 307-308.
59. Ritter, 1992, s. 70—71. (Ritter B. Vitellius. Ein Zerrbild der Geschichtsschreibung. — Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1992. — 304 с. — ISBN 3-631-44753-1.)
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62. Cassius Dio 55,3
63. Vgl. Brian W. Jones, Robert D. Milns: Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors. A Historical Commentary, with Translation and Introduction. Bristol Classical, Bristol 2002, S. 49.
64. Flavius 206, 1909, s. 2629. (Weinand R. Flavius 206 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2623—2695.)
65. Ursula Vogel-Weidemann: Die Statthalter von Africa und Asia in den Jahren 14–68 n. Chr. Eine Untersuchung zum Verhältnis Princeps und Senat. Dr. Rudolf Habelt, Bonn 1982, ISBN 3-7749-1412-5, S. 205–214.
66. Suetonius, cap. 4, ver. 3 (Suetonius (la), De Vita XII Caesarum : Liber VIII Divus Vespasianus, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#2)
67. Тацит, 1993, История, II, 97. (Публий Корнелий Тацит. Анналы // Тацит. Сочинения. — СПб.: Наука, 1993. — С. 7—312. — ISBN 5-02-028170-0.)
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70. Tacitus, Historien 3,65.
71. Suetonius, Vesp. 4–5
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73. Condutor de mulas.
74. Дион Кассий, LXIII, 8. (Дион Кассий. Римская история . Дата обращения: 24 января 2018.)
75. Suetonius, cap. 4, ver. 4 (Suetonius (la), De Vita XII Caesarum : Liber VIII Divus Vespasianus, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vespasian*.html#2)
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77. Suétone, Vespasien, 4.
78. Flavius 206, 1909, s. 2629—2630. (Weinand R. Flavius 206 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2623—2695.)
79. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, III, 1.1.
80. Girod 2019, p. 309.
81. Guy Edward Farquhar Chilver (20. juuni 2021). "Vespasian". Britannica. Vaadatud 09.06.2021.
82. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, III, 1.2.
83. Cassio Dione Cocceiano, Storia romana, LXIII, 22.1a.
84. Flavius Josephus, Jüdischer Krieg 3,3–8. Fraglich ist, ob die „Beleidigung“ Neros tatsächlich ein Affront war und Vespasian ausgeschlossen wurde; vgl. Brian W. Jones, Robert D. Milns: Suetonius: The Flavian Emperors. A Historical Commentary, with Translation and Introduction. Bristol Classical, Bristol 2002, S. 50 f.
85. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, III, 2.4.
86. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, III, 1.3.
87. Иосиф Флавий, 1991, III, 4, 2. (Иосиф Флавий. Иудейская война. — Минск: Беларусь, 1991. — 512 с. — ISBN 5-338-00653-7.)
88. Рогова, 2006, с. 155. (Рогова Ю. Рим и иудеи в период ранней империи (к проблеме взаимодействия античной и древнееврейской цивилизаций). — СПб., 2006. — 194 с.)
89. Flavius 206, 1909, s. 2630—2631. (Weinand R. Flavius 206 // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft. — Stuttgart : J.B. Metzler, 1909. — Bd. VI. — Kol. 2623—2695.)
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91. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, III, 7.22.
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99. יוסף בן מתתיהו, תולדות מלחמת היהודים עם הרומאים, ספר ג', פרק 8, ט'.
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190. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, VII, 5.4-6.
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203. Смирнова, 2002, с. 156—157. (Смирнова Е. Принципат Флавиев: императорская власть и римское общество в последней трети I века (69-96 гг. н. э.). — СПб., 2002. — 251 с.)
204. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, VII, 7.1.
205. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, VII, 7.2.
206. Giuseppe Flavio, La guerra giudaica, VII, 7.3.
207. Егоров, 2003, с. 299. (Егоров А. Правление Веспасиана и Тита // Проблемы античной истории. Сборник научных статей к 70-летию со дня рождения проф. Э.Д. Фролова. — 2003. — С. 283—305.)
208. Светоний, 1999, Домициан, 2, 2. (Гай Светоний Транквилл. Жизнь двенадцати цезарей // Светоний. Властелины Рима. — М.: Ладомир, 1999. — С. 12—281. — ISBN 5-86218-365-5.)
209. Дион Кассий, 2011, LXVI, 15, 3. (Дион Кассий. Римская история. — СПб.: Нестор-История, 2011. — 456 с. — ISBN 978-5-98187-733-9.)
210. Аврелий Виктор, О цезарях, 9, 10. (Секст Аврелий Виктор. О цезарях . Дата обращения: 9 октября 2017.)
211. Смирнова, 2002, с. 158. (Смирнова Е. Принципат Флавиев: императорская власть и римское общество в последней трети I века (69-96 гг. н. э.). — СПб., 2002. — 251 с.)
212. Svetonio, Vita di Tito, 2 e Vita di Domiziano, 2; Cassio Dione, LXVI, 15.
213. Suetonius, Vesp. 8; Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius 5.41
214. Смирнова, 2009, с. 299—300. (Смирнова Е. Финансовая политика Веспасиана и Тита // Мнемон. Исследования и публикации по истории античного мира. — 2009. — № 8. — С. 297—312.)
215. CIL X, 6321, AE 1975, 403, AE 1986, 686.
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217. A Gneo Pinario Cornelio Clemente potrebbe attribuirsi la costruzione di una strada militare che congiungeva Argentoratae al forte di Rottweil, che continuava poi in due direzioni: a sud fino alla fortezza legionaria di Vindonissa; ad est fino al Danubio nei pressi di Laiz (Dietwulf Baatz, Der römische Limes: Archäologische Ausflüge zwischen Rhein und Donau, Berlin, Mann, 1993, cartina p. 18. ISBN 3-7861-1701-2).
218. CIL XI, 5271.
219. CIL XIII, 9082.
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228. Plinio, NH. III, 30
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