Henry IV of England

Historiography and Historical Sources

The primary documentary sources for the life and reign of Henry IV are contemporary chronicles compiled during his rule. In sharp contrast to his predecessor Richard II and his son and successor Henry V, writers contemporary with Henry IV described his reign in comparatively sparse terms. For the most part, only the first three years of his rule received detailed narrative coverage. The sole chronicler who provided a relatively complete and informative account of the entire reign was the St Albans Abbey monk Thomas Walsingham, though even Walsingham's work treated the King's final years less thoroughly. Other contemporary chronicles, including those composed by the Welsh cleric Adam of Usk, the Kenilworth Abbey monk John Strecche, and the Franciscan author of the Continuatio Eulogii, recorded the events of Henry's reign with even greater brevity.^[1]

Only from the mid-fifteenth century did chroniclers begin to fill in the gaps concerning what they termed the turbulent times of Henry IV. Modern historians, such as Chris Given-Wilson, have noted that Henry IV remains among the most neglected of late medieval English sovereigns. For generations, scholars drawn to the self-destruction of Richard II and the military triumphs of Henry V treated Henry IV primarily as a transitional figure who dethroned his cousin and cleared the path for his heroic son, without examining the King's own governance in comparable detail.^[1]

The most expansive treatment of the reign was compiled in J. H. Wylie's four-volume History of England under Henry the Fourth, published between 1884 and 1898. While assembling vast archival documentation, Wylie focused on national history rather than personal royal biography. Twentieth- and twenty-first-century scholarship produced several key biographies, including J. L. Kirby's balanced 1970 work and Ian Mortimer's 2007 narrative. Yet modern analysis shares a common historiographical bias in concentrating overwhelmingly on the period from 1399 to 1406, when major crises occurred, such as the rebellions of 1400, 1403, and 1405 to 1406, the Welsh insurgency, hostilities with France and Scotland, and bruising parliamentary clashes. After 1406, surviving institutional documents diminish markedly: approximately 70 percent of surviving Privy Council records, three-quarters of Henry's diplomatic correspondence, and 85 percent of signet letters date to 1399–1406.^[1]

Constitutional historian William Stubbs argued that Henry IV acted largely as a constitutional monarch, guided by necessity to work with Parliament. During the second half of his reign, between 1406 and 1413, six parliaments were summoned while core state institutions, including the Chancery, Exchequer, and common law courts, functioned regularly. Even so, the personal participation of the King in routine governance steadily declined as his physical health deteriorated.^[1]

Origins and Early Life

Henry belonged by birth to a cadet branch of the House of Plantagenet.^[2][3] His father, John of Gaunt, was the fourth son and third surviving son of King Edward III.^[2][3] Through his marriage to Blanche of Lancaster, daughter and sole heiress of Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, Gaunt inherited vast territories across the Midlands, Yorkshire, and Wales, making him the wealthiest landowner in England after the King.^[3][4][5] Gaunt held thirty castles, maintained an armed retinue of more than 125 knights and 132 squires, and received an annual income of approximately £12,000, which surpassed the revenue of the heir apparent, Edward the Black Prince.^[4][5][6][7] Gaunt exercised considerable political authority during the minority and early reign of his nephew, King Richard II.^[2][8]

Henry was the sixth child born to John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster.^[9] His older sisters were Philippa of Lancaster, who married King John I of Portugal, and Elizabeth of Lancaster, who married successively John Hastings, Earl of Pembroke, John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter, and John Cornwall, 1st Baron Fanhope.^[2][9] Three elder brothers died in infancy, making Henry the sole surviving legitimate male heir to the Lancastrian patrimony from birth.^[6][9] A younger sister born in 1368 died shortly after birth, and Blanche of Lancaster died of plague in September 1368.^[9][10] Gaunt subsequently married Constance of Castile in 1371, who bore Henry's half-sister Catherine, later Queen of Castile.^[2][9] Gaunt also fathered four children with his mistress Katherine Swynford, who was originally governess to Henry's sisters: John, Henry, Thomas, and Joan.^[2][9] These children were given the surname Beaufort after their birthplace, the Château de Beaufort in France.^{[11][12][13][14]}

Henry maintained cordial relations with his stepmother Katherine Swynford, but his rapport with the Beaufort half-siblings fluctuated. In his youth, his Beaufort half-brothers were important friends to him.^[15] His half-sister Joan Beaufort married Ralph Neville, 4th Baron Neville (later 1st Earl of Westmorland), who remained one of Henry's firmest noble supporters, as did his eldest half-brother John Beaufort, even after Henry revoked Richard II's grant of a marquessate to John.^[9] Katherine Swynford's son from her first marriage, Thomas Swynford, was probably Henry's closest friend in his youth.^[15] When John of Gaunt married Katherine Swynford in 1396, their children were legitimised by papal bull, but after taking the throne Henry IV barred the Beauforts from royal succession by inserting a qualifying clause into the confirmation.^[9][16][17]

Childhood and Education

The precise date of Henry's birth was not recorded in contemporary official chronicles. The chronicler Jean Froissart remarked that Henry was born seven years after 1361, while John Capgrave named his birthplace as John of Gaunt's stronghold of Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, the origin of his lifelong sobriquet Henry Bolingbroke.^[15][18] Historians have debated his birthdate extensively, with proposed dates including 4–7 April 1366, 30 May 1366, 3 April 1367, and 15 April 1367.^[15][18][19] Modern research by Ian Mortimer, accepted by Given-Wilson and recent reference authorities, concluded that he was born between late March and mid-May 1367, most likely on Maundy Thursday, 15 April 1367.^[6][15][18] Henry first appeared in archival records on 1 June 1367, when King Edward III rewarded a courier £5 for bringing news of his grandson's birth.^[15]

Following his mother's death in 1368, young Henry and his sisters were placed in the care of Blanche of Lancaster, Lady Wake, sister of their maternal grandfather.^[10][15] She directed the household until 1372, after which the children lived under the supervision of Constance of Castile and Katherine Swynford at Tutbury Castle in Staffordshire, the principal Lancastrian seat in the Midlands.^[10][15] Henry formed close companionship with Thomas Swynford, who was nearly the same age.^[10] In December 1374, Gaunt appointed his esquire Thomas Burton as Henry's tutor and governor.^[15][20] Hugh Herle was appointed chaplain and instructed Henry in reading and writing English and French, along with functional Latin.^[15][20] In 1376, military instruction was entrusted to the Gascon knight Sir William Montandre.^[15][20]

On 23 April 1377, Henry and his cousin Richard of Bordeaux were admitted together to the Order of the Garter.^[21][22] When Edward III died two months later, Richard ascended the throne as Richard II. At the coronation on 16 July 1377, Henry, who had recently assumed his father's secondary courtesy title of Earl of Derby, carried Curtana, the ceremonial sword of mercy.^[15] Household records from 1381 and 1382 show Henry riding, hunting, travelling with his father, and attending public ceremonies.^[15][20]

During the Peasants' Revolt in June 1381, John of Gaunt, one of the rebels' main targets, had taken refuge in Scotland.^[15][23] Henry was trapped alongside King Richard II in the Tower of London.^[15][20] On 14 June, while Richard met rebel leaders at Mile End, insurgents broke into the fortress.^[15][23] The rebels murdered Archbishop Simon Sudbury, Treasurer Sir Robert Hales, and Gaunt's physician on Tower Hill.^[15][23] Henry's life was saved through the intervention of a Southwark resident named John Ferrour, who hid him from the mob.^[15][20][23] Nearly twenty years later, in January 1400, when Ferrour was captured participating in the Epiphany Rising against King Henry IV, the King granted him a full pardon in remembrance of his rescue.^[15][20][23]

Marriage and the Bohun Inheritance

In July 1380, John of Gaunt purchased the royal wardship and marriage rights of the wealthy co-heiress Mary de Bohun for 5,000 marks.^[15] Mary was the younger daughter of Humphrey de Bohun, 7th Earl of Hereford, 6th Earl of Essex, and 2nd Earl of Northampton, who had died in 1373.^[15] Mary's elder sister Eleanor was married to Henry's uncle, Thomas of Woodstock, Earl of Buckingham (later Duke of Gloucester).^[15][24] Chronicler Jean Froissart reported that Woodstock, who wanted the entire Bohun inheritance, urged Mary to join the Order of Poor Clares.^[15] Gaunt disrupted the plan by having Mary brought to Rochford Hall in Essex, where she married Henry around 5 February 1381.^[15][20][25]

Because Mary was about eleven years old at the time of the wedding, the marriage was not consummated until late 1384, when she reached the age of fourteen.^[15][26] On 22 December 1384, Henry was recognised in right of his wife as Earl of Hereford and Earl of Northampton.^[15][27] The couple developed a genuine mutual affection, reinforced by shared pursuits in music and reading, and Henry frequently sent gifts of jewellery and cloth.^[15] Mary bore at least six children, including the future Henry V, and died in 1394 after giving birth to their daughter Philippa.^{[15][28][29][30]} Because she predeceased Richard II's deposition, Mary never became queen.^[31]

Conflict with Richard II

Although Henry and Richard II were first cousins and childhood playmates, they had little in common.^[15][22] Henry became an accomplished jouster and active soldier, earning praise from John Gower as a knight full of prowess, whereas Richard shunned tournaments and preferred courtly luxury.^[15][32] In November 1383, Henry accompanied his father to diplomatic negotiations with French envoys at Calais.^[15][20] He participated in Richard's military campaign into Scotland in 1385 within Gaunt's contingent, and on 20 October 1385 he took his seat in the House of Lords for the first time.^[15][20][33]

Political tension grew as Richard surrounded himself with favourites, notably Robert de Vere, 9th Earl of Oxford, and Chancellor Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk.^[34][35] The King was also suspicious of his cousin, because in 1376 Edward III had recognised John of Gaunt and his descendants as heirs to the kingdom.^[15] Because Richard's marriage to Anne of Bohemia was childless, Henry was a potential successor.^[15] Seeking to prevent Henry's succession, Richard recognised Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, a grandson of Lionel of Antwerp through his mother, as his heir, and in the later 1380s Henry had almost no contact with the royal court.^[15]

In July 1386, John of Gaunt sailed from Plymouth with an expeditionary army to pursue his claim to the throne of Castile, remaining abroad until November 1389.^[15] At the Wonderful Parliament of October 1386, lords and commons united to demand the dismissal of Chancellor Suffolk and Treasurer John Fordham, threatening Richard with deposition by invoking the precedent of Edward II.^[35] A parliamentary Great Council of fourteen commissioners was appointed to reform the realm.^[35] In February 1387, while touring the north of England, Richard obtained rulings from the chief judges of the realm, who declared that any encroachment on the royal prerogative was unlawful and that those responsible could be treated as traitors; the judges signed the royal declaration at Nottingham.^[35]

The Lords Appellant and Radcot Bridge

In November 1387, Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester, Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel, and Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick, assembled armed retinues at Waltham Cross and formally lodged an appeal of treason against the King's five principal favourites: Suffolk, de Vere (whom Richard had created Duke of Ireland), Archbishop Alexander Neville of York, Chief Justice Robert Tresilian, and Sir Nicholas Brembre.^[36] Richard agreed to hold hearings in Parliament on 3 February 1388, but secretly ordered de Vere to raise a royalist army in Cheshire and march on London.^[36]

Faced with royalist mobilisation, Henry Bolingbroke and Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Earl of Nottingham, joined Gloucester, Arundel, and Warwick, forming the five Lords Appellant.^[22][36] Why Henry joined them is unknown: he may have been defending the interests of his absent father and his own claim to the succession, or resented the way de Vere, as justice of Chester, used his power in north-western England to enrich himself from the revenues of the duchy of Lancaster.^[15] On 19 December 1387, the Appellants intercepted de Vere's army at Radcot Bridge in Oxfordshire.^[36][37] Henry commanded the detachment holding the bridge, breaking its arches to cut off retreat.^[15][36] De Vere's troops were routed, and de Vere escaped across the river in the mist, eventually fleeing into continental exile.^[36]

The victorious Appellants marched on London, blockaded the Tower of London, and forced Richard to surrender.^[36] When the Merciless Parliament opened in Westminster Hall on 3 February 1388, the five Appellants, dressed in robes of cloth-of-gold, prosecuted their appeals.^[38] Suffolk and de Vere were condemned in absentia, while Brembre and Tresilian were executed.^[38] Archbishop Neville was deprived of his temporalities.^[38] Although Henry and Nottingham pleaded for the life of Sir Simon Burley, Richard's former tutor, Gloucester and Arundel insisted on his execution alongside several royal chamberlains.^[15][38] Henry took minimal part in the subsequent administrative council, and on 3 May 1389 Richard declared himself of age, dismissed the Appellant regime, and recalled John of Gaunt from Gascony to restore stability.^[15][39]

Crusading and Pilgrimage

With his father back in England managing court politics, Henry withdrew from domestic affairs to build his chivalric reputation abroad.^[15] In March and April 1390, he took part in the jousts of Saint-Inglevert near Calais.^[15] When French authorities refused him safe-conduct for a proposed campaign to Barbary (Mahdia), Henry resolved to join the Prussian crusade (Preußenfahrten) organised annually by the Teutonic Order against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[15][40] Leaving Boston in July 1390 with two ships and a retinue of 70 to 80 household knights and squires, he arrived in Danzig on 10 August.^[40]

Under the direction of Marshal Engelhard Rabe, Henry and his company advanced up the Neman River to Vilnius.^[15][40] Although English longbowmen distinguished themselves and helped capture an outer fort on 4 September, the siege of the main castle failed, and the crusaders withdrew to Königsberg.^[15][40] Wintering in Prussia, Henry bought captured Lithuanian women and children to bring back to Königsberg for baptism into the Latin rite, despite Lithuania having officially converted under Polish auspices in 1387.^[41][42] He sailed for England on 31 March 1391, reaching Hull on 30 April.^[15] The expedition cost £4,360, largely funded by his father.^[15][43]

In July 1392, Henry embarked on a second Prussian voyage with more than 100 men, longbowmen, and six minstrels.^[43] On arriving in Königsberg, he found that there would be no campaign that year.^[15] He diverted the expedition into a grand continental pilgrimage to Jerusalem.^[15][43] Travelling overland through Frankfurt an der Oder, he was entertained at Prague by King Wenceslaus IV, and at Vienna by Duke Albert III of Austria and King Sigismund of Hungary.^[15][44] Moving via Leoben, Villach, and Treviso, Henry reached Venice on 1 or 2 December 1392, where the Senate provided ships for the rest of his journey.^[15]

After celebrating Christmas in Zara, Henry sailed past Corfu, Rhodes, and Cyprus and landed at Jaffa in the second half of January 1393.^[15] He spent over a week visiting the holy sites of Jerusalem, making devotional offerings at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the Mount of Olives, and vowed to lead a future crusade to recover the city.^[15][43][45] Returning via Venice, Padua, and Verona, he was hosted in Milan by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, crossed Mont Cenis, and travelled through Burgundy and Paris to Calais, returning to London on 5 July 1393.^[15] This expedition cost him £4,915, most of which again came from his father..^[15] The household men who accompanied him on both expeditions formed a core of loyal followers who supported him for the rest of his life..^[15]

Banishment and Disinheritance

After his return, Henry attended court, parliament and council from time to time and witnessed 14 of the 42 royal charters issued between 1393 and 1398, but he remained outside the King's inner circle..^[15] In October 1396, he and his father, with other nobles, escorted Richard II's new wife, Isabella of France, from Ardres to Calais..^[15] In September 1397, Richard carried out his long-delayed vengeance against the Appellants.^[46][47] Gloucester was arrested and murdered in captivity at Calais; Arundel was tried and beheaded; and Warwick was condemned to perpetual imprisonment on the Isle of Man.^[46][47][48] To reward those who acquiesced, Richard distributed confiscated titles on 29 September 1397, creating Henry Duke of Hereford and granting him pardons for his 1387 actions.^[27][46][49]

In mid-December 1397, while riding from London to Windsor, Henry was overtaken by Thomas de Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk..^[15] Norfolk reportedly confided that Richard's inner circle intended to destroy both dukes and revoke their inheritances in retribution for Radcot Bridge.^[15][50] Henry reported the conversation to his father, who informed the King..^[15] When Norfolk denied the accusations before a royal commission at Windsor in April 1398, Henry challenged him to trial by combat.^[15][51][52] On 17 September 1398, a vast crowd assembled at Gosford Green near Caludon Castle in Coventry to witness the duel.^[52][53][54] Just as the combatants prepared to engage, Richard threw down his warder, halted the proceedings, and banished both men: Norfolk for life, and Henry for ten years.^[52][53][54]

Henry went into exile in Paris, taking residence at the Hôtel de Clisson under the hospitable protection of King Charles VI and the French royal dukes.^[15][54][55] On 3 February 1399, John of Gaunt died in England.^[15][53][56] On 18 March, Richard cancelled letters patent that allowed Henry's attorneys to receive his inheritance, extended Henry's banishment to life, and distributed Lancastrian properties to court favourites, including the Dukes of Exeter, Aumale, and Surrey.^{[15][55][57][58]} When Henry considered marrying Marie, Countess of Eu, a niece of the French king, Richard sent the Earl of Salisbury to Paris to block the marriage..^[15]

In May 1399, after an outbreak of plague, Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, who favoured peace with England, was away from Paris..^[15] Power in France passed to his rival, the King's brother Louis, Duke of Orléans, leader of the French war party..^[15] On 17 June 1399, Orléans and Henry concluded a formal alliance, each promising to be the friend of the other's friends and enemy of the other's enemies..^[15] In effect, the alliance gave Henry a free hand to return to England..^[15]

The Campaign of 1399 and Accession

Richard II led a military campaign to Ireland, where the situation had worsened after the killing of the royal lieutenant, the Earl of March, in 1398 and a revolt by two Irish kings, and he landed there on 1 June 1399.^[15][58][59] His uncle Edmund of Langley, Duke of York, was left as protector of the realm in his absence..^[15][59][60] Learning of the King's absence, Henry sailed from Boulogne in late June with three ships and a small retinue of roughly 300 men, accompanied by Thomas Arundel, the deprived Archbishop of Canterbury, and Thomas FitzAlan, heir to the executed Earl of Arundel.^{[15][55][57][59][61]}

After a feigned landing at Pevensey in Sussex, Henry landed at Ravenspurn in Yorkshire around 4 July 1399.^[15][59][62] He marched through his family's northern estates, visiting Pickering, Knaresborough, and Pontefract castles.^[15][59] At Doncaster on 13 July, he met Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, Henry 'Hotspur' Percy, and Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland.^[15][59][63] Henry publicly announced that he had come to claim his inheritance, though the northern nobles probably understood that he was a claimant to the throne..^[15][59][61] As gentry and commoners rallied to his banner, Duke Edmund of York assembled troops at St Albans, but found his men unwilling to fight.^[15][59] York retreated to Berkeley Castle, where Henry met him on 27 July and secured his submission.^[15][59] Henry then moved to Bristol, where royal ministers William le Scrope, Earl of Wiltshire, Sir John Bussy, and Sir Henry Green were captured and summarily beheaded.^[15][59]

Richard II's return from Ireland was delayed, and he landed in Wales only on 24 July..^[15][64][65] The King reached Conwy Castle with a minimal escort.^[15][59] Henry sent Northumberland and Archbishop Arundel to negotiate.^[15][59] Northumberland swore that if Richard restored Henry's inheritance and surrendered five councillors for trial, he would retain his crown.^[15][59] Richard agreed to the terms and left the castle with a small escort to meet Henry, but on the way he was ambushed and taken to Flint Castle as Henry's prisoner..^[15][59] Taken to Chester and then to London, Richard was imprisoned in the Tower on 1 September.^[66][67]

Henry was determined to take the throne but first had to justify doing so.^[68][69] Richard's heir presumptive was the young Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, whose claim came through his grandmother, a daughter of Lionel of Antwerp..^{[70][71][72][73]} Henry justified his title by claiming agnatic descent through male-preference lineage from Henry III, invoking the old legend that Edmund Crouchback was the elder brother of Edward I, and citing Richard's tyranny and misgovernance.^{[68][69][71][72][74]} On 29 September 1399, Richard signed an instrument of abdication in the Tower.^[71][75][76] On 30 September, an assembly of estates met in Westminster Hall, accepted Richard's resignation, enacted 33 articles of deposition against him, and acclaimed Henry as King Henry IV.^{[71][75][77][78][79]}

On 13 October 1399, the feast of the translation of Edward the Confessor, Henry IV was crowned at Westminster Abbey by Archbishop Arundel.^[77][80][81] He delivered his accession speech to the assembled lords in English, marking the first time since the Norman Conquest that an English monarch had addressed his subjects in their native tongue.^[77][82][83] Henry was anointed with holy oil contained in a golden eagle vessel, which tradition claimed the Virgin Mary had bestowed on Saint Thomas Becket in 1170.^[80][84][85] On the eve of his coronation, Henry founded the Order of the Bath, ceremonial bathing representing ritual purification, and knighted 46 gentlemen.^[55][86] On 15 October, his eldest son, Henry of Monmouth, was invested as Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Lancaster, Duke of Aquitaine, and Earl of Chester.^[26][80]

Early Reign and the Epiphany Rising

Henry assumed power burdened by conflicting expectations. At Doncaster and Knaresborough in July 1399, he had promised that he would demand extraordinary taxation only for essential wars.^[80] Although he inherited the Lancastrian revenues, his mother's Bohun lands, and over £60,000 in coin and £110,000 in precious plate from Richard's treasury, his administration faced crippling costs.^[80] In the first months of his reign he granted out many lands and annuities to win the loyalty of Richard II's followers and reward his own supporters, and his household expenditure reached about £52,000 in his first year..^[15] The House of Commons refused to extend the taxes, and although Parliament confirmed the customs duties, a large fall in the wool trade left them well below what Henry expected..^[15]

In December 1399, Richard's former courtiers hatched the Epiphany Rising to assassinate Henry and his sons during a tournament at Windsor Castle on Twelfth Night, 6 January 1400, and restore Richard.^[80][87][88] The leaders included John Holland, Earl of Huntingdon; Thomas Holland, Earl of Kent; John Montagu, Earl of Salisbury; and Thomas le Despenser, Baron Despenser.^[87] Forewarned by Edward of Norwich, Earl of Rutland, on 4 January, Henry fled to London and mobilised an army.^[87][89] The conspirators fled to the west, but local inhabitants captured them: Kent and Salisbury were beheaded by townspeople at Cirencester, Despenser was lynched at Bristol, and Huntingdon was executed at Pleshey.^[87][90] Henry presided over trials at Oxford, executing 22 lesser conspirators and pardoning 37 others.^[87]

The conspiracy demonstrated that the deposed King posed an enduring peril while alive.^[55][80][91] Richard II died in confinement at Pontefract Castle around 14 February 1400, aged thirty-three.^{[55][80][91][92]} The chronicler Thomas Walsingham reported a rumour that Richard, on hearing that the rising had failed, lost his mind and starved himself, but modern historians do not doubt that he was killed, most likely by starvation..^[15][80] To dispel rumours of escape, Richard's body was displayed with the face exposed at St Paul's Cathedral in London on 17 February before being quietly interred at the Dominican Priory at Kings Langley in Hertfordshire.^{[80][91][93][94]} Rumours persisted that Richard had escaped to Scotland, and an impostor was maintained at Stirling Castle by Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, until his death in 1419.^[95][96][97] In December 1413, Henry V transferred Richard's remains to the royal tomb at Westminster Abbey.^[80][91][98]

Scottish Campaign and Border Warfare

Hostilities with the Kingdom of Scotland intensified following Richard's deposition, as King Robert III refused to recognise Henry's royal title and cross-border raids increased.^[15][99] In February 1400, Henry directed Treasurer John Norbury to compile historical dossiers proving English feudal suzerainty over Scotland.^[100] The resulting compilation, submitted on 15 July 1400, cited John Balliol's homage to Edward I alongside selective extracts from thirteenth-century treaties.^[100] Henry summoned Robert III to render homage at Edinburgh, but David Stewart, Duke of Rothesay, answered by offering to settle the dispute through a combat between 200 to 300 knights, which Henry declined.^[100]

Border rivalries presented Henry with an opportunity to intervene. George I, Earl of March (Dunbar), had arranged for his daughter Elizabeth to marry the Duke of Rothesay, but Archibald the Grim, 3rd Earl of Douglas, collaborated with Albany to annul the match and marry Rothesay to Douglas's daughter Margaret.^[100] When Robert III refused to return Elizabeth's dowry, Dunbar renounced his allegiance, sent letters to Henry in February 1400 offering his service, and fled to England in March under safe-conduct.^[100] Dunbar swore formal homage to Henry on 25 July 1400 and was granted estates in Cumberland, while his Scottish lands were occupied by Douglas.^[100]

On 13 August 1400, Henry led an invasion force of more than 13,000 men, including 800 men-at-arms and 2,000 archers, into Haddingtonshire, advancing through East Lothian while royal supply ships escorted the army along the coast.^[101][102] Henry's army camped mostly near Leith, close to Edinburgh, where it could keep in contact with its supply fleet, and the King did not try to besiege Edinburgh..^{[101][103][104]} The Scottish royal army withdrew into the Highlands, refusing pitched battle.^[102] Confronted by supply shortages, Henry ordered a withdrawal on 23 August, re-crossing the border on 29 August.^[102] The campaign accomplished little beyond exhausting the King's treasury, though it was historically notable as the final military campaign conducted inside Scotland by a reigning King of England in person.^[102][104]

A six-week truce was agreed in November 1400, later extended to December 1401.^[102] In 1402, Scottish raiding forces crossed the border into Northumberland under Archibald Douglas, 4th Earl of Douglas, but were intercepted and crushed by Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and his son Hotspur at the Battle of Homildon Hill on 14 September 1402.^[99][102] Four Scottish earls and dozens of knights were captured.^[102] Henry's subsequent demand that the Percy family surrender their high-ranking Scottish captives to the crown without ransom inflamed the grievances that led to the Percy rebellions.^[105][106]

The Welsh Rebellion

In 1400, on his return from Scotland, Henry learned at Northampton of an uprising in Wales.^[15] The insurgency was led by Owain Glyndŵr, a Welsh landowner who had fallen into a property dispute with his neighbour Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn.^[107] Grey concealed a royal summons ordering Glyndŵr to join the King's campaign against Scotland in August 1400; because Glyndŵr did not answer it, Henry declared him a traitor and ordered his lands confiscated. On 16 September 1400, Glyndŵr had himself proclaimed Prince of Wales, launched raids across Shropshire and North Wales, and captured several English strongholds.^{[15][107][108]}

Henry reached Shrewsbury on 26 September 1400 and, although the immediate danger had passed, led a raid through Bangor, Caernarfon and Harlech before returning to Shrewsbury.^[15] By June 1401, the rebellion had spread across most of central and northern Wales.^[15] Henry and his son the Prince of Wales held more than half of Wales, with income from their estates of at least £8,500, and as the revolt spread they lost revenue while spending large sums to suppress it.^[15] Henry himself led five further campaigns in Wales, in May and October 1401, October 1402, September 1403 and September 1405.^[15] Glyndŵr fought an effective guerrilla war against Henry's troops.^[15][107]

Glyndŵr achieved significant victories, routing royalist forces at Mynydd Hyddgen in June 1401 and capturing Sir Edmund Mortimer at the Battle of Bryn Glas (Pilleth) in June 1402.^[26][107] When Henry refused to ransom Mortimer, the captive allied with Glyndŵr and married his daughter Catherine.^[107] Glyndŵr captured Conwy and Harlech castles, secured military and financial aid from France and Brittany, and in 1404 was formally crowned Prince of Wales at Harlech.^[107] English resistance was reduced to a few castles, fortified towns and isolated estates. In 1402, the English Parliament responded to the revolt by passing penal laws against Wales.

The main fighting in Wales was led not by the King but by others: first the Percys, later the Prince of Wales, and the captains and castellans of the castles.^[15] Royal armies defeated Welsh contingents at Grosmont and Pwll Melyn.^[26] The French withdrew most of their troops in 1406. In September 1408, Prince Henry recaptured Aberystwyth Castle, and in early 1409 he captured Harlech Castle, taking Glyndŵr's wife, daughters, and Mortimer grandchildren prisoner to the Tower of London.^[26] Driven from his strongholds, Glyndŵr was last recorded in the Snowdonia region in 1412 and died around 1415 or 1416.

The Percy Rebellions

The Percy family had been Henry's essential northern allies in 1399, and the King initially rewarded them with extensive offices and revenues.^[15][105] Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland, was named Constable of England and Warden of the West March, while his brother Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, became Admiral of England and, in 1401, steward of the royal household.^[15] Northumberland's son, Henry 'Hotspur' Percy, was made Justiciar of Chester and North Wales, Warden of the East March, and from 1401 lieutenant to the Prince of Wales.^[15] By 1401, Henry IV grew wary of their concentrated power and began curtailing their authority: he transferred the custody of the Mortimer estates to the crown, took back Anglesey from Hotspur, and promoted their northern rival Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland.^[15][105]

Discontent erupted over finances and royal policy. Hotspur complained that the Crown had failed to reimburse him for the defense of the Scottish border, refused to permit the ransoming of Scottish prisoners captured at Homildon Hill, and declined to ransom Hotspur's brother-in-law, Edmund Mortimer.^[105][106] In July 1403, Hotspur and Worcester raised the standard of rebellion in Cheshire, proclaiming their intention to depose Henry and support the claim of the young Earl of March.^[109] They marched toward Shrewsbury to unite with Owain Glyndŵr.^[109]

The Battle of Shrewsbury

Marching rapidly westward, Henry IV and Prince Henry intercepted the rebels at Shrewsbury on 21 July 1403 before Northumberland's reinforcements could arrive.^{[108][110][111]} In a fiercely contested engagement that lasted an entire day, sixteen-year-old Prince Henry was struck in the face by an arrow, but continued fighting alongside his men.^[108][110] The royal physician John Bradmore treated the prince's wound with an innovative surgical extractor.^[108]

Hotspur was killed in the battle by an arrow to the face, and on learning of his death the rebels lost heart.^[110][111] Royalist forces routed the rebel army, leaving over 20,000 men killed or wounded.^[110] Worcester was captured, condemned for treason, and executed at Shrewsbury on 23 July alongside Sir Richard Venables and Sir Richard Vernon, their severed heads displayed on London Bridge.^[110][111] Northumberland, who had not yet crossed the border with his army, surrendered to the King at York; he was stripped of his constable's staff but spared his life and hereditary lands.

Northern Risings and Bramham Moor

In February 1405, Northumberland, Edmund Mortimer, and Owain Glyndŵr entered into the Tripartite Indenture, an agreement proposing to carve up the Kingdom of England into three portions.^{[112][113][114]} Under the pact, Glyndŵr was to receive Wales and the Welsh Marches; Northumberland was assigned the northern counties, including Northamptonshire, Norfolk, Warwickshire, and Leicestershire; and Mortimer was to take the remainder of southern England.^{[112][113][114]}

In May 1405, Richard le Scrope, Archbishop of York, Thomas Mowbray, Earl of Norfolk (son of the exiled duke), and Thomas Bardolf, 5th Baron Bardolf, launched an open revolt in Yorkshire in concert with Northumberland.^[113][115] The uprising collapsed when the Earl of Westmorland tricked Scrope and Mowbray at Shipton Moor into disbanding their forces on the pretext of negotiating terms.^[115] Scrope and Mowbray were arrested and brought before the King at Pontefract.^[115] When Chief Justice Sir William Gascoigne refused to pronounce sentence on the prelate on the grounds that secular courts had no jurisdiction to try an archbishop, Henry appointed a special commission under Thomas Beaufort, which condemned Scrope and Mowbray to death; they were beheaded outside York on 8 June 1405.^[113][116] Pope Innocent VII issued a bull of excommunication against those involved, though Henry received absolution from Pope Gregory XII in 1407.^[116]

Northumberland and Bardolf fled into Scotland.^[115] In February 1408, they mounted a final invasion across the northern border with an army of Scottish and Northumbrian supporters.^[117] On 19 February 1408, they were brought to battle at Bramham Moor by Sir Thomas Rokeby, the High Sheriff of Yorkshire.^[118] Northumberland was killed at Bramham Moor and Bardolf died of wounds received in the battle.^[118] Percy power was greatly reduced, and northern England became the domain of their political rivals, the Neville family.^{[105][113][118][119]}

Domestic Governance and Parliament

Henry had to turn to Parliament repeatedly for taxes, and nine parliaments met during his reign.^[1][120] Lacking an uncontested dynastic title, he was compelled to make concessions to the House of Commons regarding royal expenditure and administration.^[120] The Commons repeatedly complained of financial mismanagement and insisted on auditing accounts and approving royal appointments.^[120] In 1407, Henry acknowledged that all money bills must first be introduced in the House of Commons and only then presented to the King.

The institutional tension culminated in the Long Parliament of 1406, which sat intermittently from March until December, making it the longest single parliament of the medieval era.^[55][120] Dissatisfied with the lack of success against the Welsh rebels and the presence of French troops in Wales, the Commons refused to grant supply until Henry appointed a permanent council of seventeen lords to oversee royal governance and manage tax revenues, and the Long Parliament was one more small step towards constitutional monarchy.^[55][120]

In religious policy, Henry supported the established Church.^[121] Prompted by Archbishop Arundel, who convened a convocation at St Paul's Cathedral in January 1401 to address the rise of the Lollard movement inspired by John Wycliffe, Henry secured the enactment of De heretico comburendo in March 1401.^{[121][122][123]} The statute authorised the civil magistrate to burn relapsed or obstinate heretics at the stake.^[121] When the Commons proposed in 1404 and 1410 that the Crown confiscate ecclesiastical estates to pay for military defense and royal debt, Henry refused to sanction attacks on the clergy that had supported his accession, and the petitions were dropped from the parliamentary record.^[124][125]

Foreign Relations and Diplomacy

In the winter of 1400–1401, Henry hosted Manuel II Palaiologos, the only Byzantine emperor ever to visit England.^[126][127] Manuel stayed at Eltham Palace from December 1400 to February 1401, where Henry held a joust in his honour and provided 3,000 marks to assist Constantinople against the Ottoman siege.^{[126][127][128]}

Anglo-Scottish relations changed dramatically in March 1406.^[129][130] Fearing for the safety of his eleven-year-old heir, James Stewart, Earl of Carrick, Robert III sent the prince to France.^[129][130] On 22 March 1406, English privateers intercepted the vessel off Flamborough Head and delivered Prince James to Henry IV.^{[129][130][131]} Robert III died shortly thereafter, and the young King James I remained a prisoner in England for eighteen years until 1424.^{[130][132][133]} Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, governed Scotland as regent without seeking James's release, effectively neutralising the Scottish military threat against northern England for the remainder of Henry's life.^{[130][133][134]}

Relations with France remained unstable during the Hundred Years' War, though formal truces were extended.^[135] France also supported Glyndŵr's rebellion.^[136] From 1407, the descent of King Charles VI into madness plunged France into the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War.^[135] While Prince Henry sent English troops to France to support the Duke of Burgundy against the House of Orléans, Henry IV, after partly recovering from his illness, backed Charles, Duke of Orléans.^[15] On 18 May 1412, Henry's second son Thomas of Clarence concluded the Treaty of Bourges with the Armagnacs, agreeing to send 1,000 men-at-arms and 3,000 archers in exchange for the restoration of the old duchy of Aquitaine to its former extent.^[135] In August 1412, Thomas of Lancaster landed at Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue and met Charles of Orléans at Blois, who paid several hundred thousand livres for his withdrawal and handed over his brother John of Angoulême as a hostage.

Henry's reign also saw conflict with the Hanseatic League. Although Henry confirmed the privileges of Hanseatic merchants on his accession, English attacks on Hanseatic shipping, especially Prussian, continued, so English merchants were expelled from all Hanseatic ports and the Hanse also boycotted English goods. Because continental demand for English cloth weakened the boycott, the Hanseatic leaders opened negotiations with Henry, and in 1407 three agreements were reached, with the Prussian group, the Livonian group and the rest of the Hanse, ending both the boycott and the attacks on shipping. A famine in 1409 led Henry to grant further privileges to Hanseatic merchants, as England depended on grain from the continent, but before the end of his reign English attacks on Hanseatic shipping resumed.

Health Decline and Final Years

From 1405 onward, Henry suffered from debilitating physical illness.^[137][138] He contracted a disfiguring skin disease and experienced recurrent acute seizures or collapse in June 1405, April 1406, June 1408, the winter of 1408–1409, December 1412, and March 1413.^{[137][138][139][140]} In 1410, he awarded his royal surgeon Thomas Morstede an annual pension of £40 to secure his exclusive services.^[139][141] Some medieval writers attributed his skin affliction to divine punishment for the execution of Archbishop Scrope in June 1405.^{[138][142][143]} Medical historians have debated the pathology, suggesting conditions including leprosy, severe psoriasis, cardiovascular disease, stroke, epilepsy, or complications of diabetes.^{[15][137][138][144]}

As the King's health deteriorated, political power shifted toward his eldest son, Prince Henry of Monmouth.^{[15][108][145]} In January 1410, the Prince, supported by his Beaufort uncles Henry and Thomas, assumed de facto leadership of the royal council.^[15][145] The Prince dismissed Archbishop Arundel from the chancellorship and pursued an independent domestic and foreign policy, advocating an aggressive alliance with Burgundy.^[15][146] By late 1411, Henry IV recovered sufficient strength to reassert personal authority.^[15][146] On 30 November 1411, the King dismissed the Prince and the Beauforts from the council, reinstated Arundel as chancellor, and placed his younger son Thomas of Lancaster in charge of military operations in France.^{[15][26][146]} On 23 September 1412, the King and Prince Henry reconciled publicly in London, ending rumours of an impending coup.^[146][147]

Chronicler Raphael Holinshed and William Shakespeare recounted a popular prophecy that Henry IV would die in Jerusalem, which the King interpreted as a sign that he would fulfill his crusading vow.^[25][148] On 20 March 1413, while praying at the shrine of Saint Edward the Confessor in Westminster Abbey during a parliamentary session, Henry collapsed from a final seizure.^[20][149] He was carried into the Jerusalem Chamber within the Abbot's Lodging, where he died later that day, aged forty-five.^{[20][25][148]} His executor Thomas Langley, Bishop of Durham, attended him at his deathbed.^{[20][25][148]}

A famous legend recorded by the Burgundian chronicler Enguerrand de Monstrelet, and later repeated by Tudor historians Edward Hall and Raphael Holinshed, asserted that as Henry lay dying, Prince Henry entered the chamber, took the royal crown from his father's bedside cushion, and carried it away, believing the King had expired.^[1][138] When the King stirred and demanded the return of the crown, the Prince explained his mistake and pledged to defend the crown by the sword, to which the King replied by entrusting his son to God's mercy.^[1]

Burial and Tomb

Unlike most of his Plantagenet predecessors, who were buried at Westminster Abbey, Henry IV chose to be buried at Canterbury Cathedral.^[150][151] His tomb stands on the north side of Trinity Chapel, adjacent to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket.^[150][151] The reasons for his choice are debated, but the historian Christopher Wilson suggested that Henry probably wished to associate himself with the martyr saint to legitimise his dynasty after seizing the throne from Richard II.^[150][151] At his coronation, he had been anointed with the holy oil of Saint Thomas, kept in an eagle-shaped ampulla.^[85][152]

The tomb structure reinforces this connection. A wooden panel at the west end depicts the martyrdom of Becket, while the painted wooden tester above bears Henry's personal motto Soverayne and crowned golden eagles.^[151][153] The painted canopy displays royal coats of arms encircled by SS collars, each containing a golden eagle.^[153] Alabaster effigies of Henry and Queen Joan lie on the chest, depicting them in ceremonial robes and crowns.^[154] An exhumation in 1832 revealed that the King's body had been exceptionally well embalmed, confirming that the carved alabaster portrait represented an accurate likeness.^{[155][156][157][158]}

Titles and Heraldry

Throughout his life, Henry held a succession of noble and royal titles: Earl of Derby (1377–1397); Earl of Northampton and Earl of Hereford (22 December 1384 – 30 September 1399); Duke of Hereford (29 September 1397 – 30 September 1399); Duke of Lancaster, Earl of Lancaster, and Earl of Leicester (3 February – 30 September 1399); and King of England and Lord of Ireland (30 September 1399 – 20 March 1413).^{[15][27][159][160]} The dukedom of Hereford was created for him following the 1397 suppression of the Appellants, forming part of the 'duketti' created by Richard II, and merged into the Crown upon his accession in 1399.^{[15][27][161]} In 1399, Henry also passed a parliamentary statute establishing that the Duchy of Lancaster would remain the personal private estate of the reigning monarch, held separately from general crown lands.^[15][162]

Before his father's death in 1399, Henry bore the royal arms of England quartered with France Ancient (a field semy-de-lis), differenced by a label of five points ermine.^{[163][164][165]} Following John of Gaunt's death in February 1399, the label was differenced per pale ermine and France.^{[163][164][165]} Upon ascending the throne, Henry adopted the royal arms.^[164][165] Around 1406, he updated the royal arms to match the change adopted in France by King Charles VI (France Modern), reducing the field of fleur-de-lis to three lilies representing the Holy Trinity.^{[163][164][165]}

Marriages and Issue

Henry married his first wife, Mary de Bohun, around 5 February 1381 at Rochford Hall, Essex.^[15][20][28] Mary died in childbirth on 4 June 1394.^[15][28] Their marriage produced seven children:^[28][166]

* Edward (born and died April 1382), who died in infancy.^{[26][28][166]} * Henry V of England (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), Prince of Wales and King of England, who married Catherine of Valois.^[2][166] * Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence (autumn 1387 – 22 March 1421), who married Margaret Holland; killed in action at the Battle of Baugé without legitimate issue.^[2][28][166] * John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford (20 June 1389 – 14 September 1435), Regent of France, who married firstly Anne of Burgundy and secondly Jacquetta of Luxembourg, leaving no legitimate issue.^[2][28][166] * Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (3 October 1390 – 23 February 1447), who married firstly Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut and Holland (annulled 1428), and secondly Eleanor Cobham, leaving no surviving legitimate issue.^[2][28][166] * Blanche of England (1392 – 1409), who married Louis III, Elector Palatine, in 1402.^[166][167] * Philippa of England (mid-1394 – 5 January 1430), who married Eric of Pomerania, King of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, in 1406.^{[28][166][168][169]}

On 7 February 1403, Henry married his second wife, Joan of Navarre, at Winchester Cathedral.^[15][170] Joan was the daughter of King Charles II of Navarre and widow of John IV, Duke of Brittany.^{[15][170][171]} She had eight children from her first marriage, but her marriage to Henry produced no surviving children.^[171] In 1403, Joan was delivered of stillborn twins.^[172] Joan maintained good relations with her royal stepchildren, frequently supporting Prince Henry in political disagreements with his father.^[171][173]

By an unknown mistress, Henry had one illegitimate son, Edmund Le Boorde (1401 – c. 19 December 1419).^{[172][174][175]}

Historical Assessment and Legacy

Contemporary chroniclers offered mixed assessments of Henry IV's reign. Thomas Walsingham recorded that the King ruled gloriously for thirteen and a half years, while Adam of Usk commended his forceful rule and suppression of rebellion.^[1] The St Albans Anonymous Chronicle observed that despite ongoing taxation, Henry was widely respected by his people.^[1] John Strecche offered a more critical view, remarking that while Henry had never been defeated in battle, his unfulfilled financial promises had alienated public affection.^[1] The French chronicler Enguerrand de Monstrelet described him as a valiant, fierce, and cunning warrior.^[1]

Henry's deposition of Richard II created an enduring constitutional and dynastic dilemma.^{[71][176][177]} Although he successfully secured the throne, defeated major revolts, and passed the crown peacefully to Henry V, bypassing the superior hereditary claim of the Mortimer line weakened the dynastic stability of the House of Lancaster.^{[71][176][177]} This precedent later became one of the elements of the fifteenth-century dynastic disputes that ended in the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) between the houses of Lancaster and York.^{[74][176][177][178]}

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4. Empson C. W. John of Gaunt: his life and character. — P. 17—18.
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14. Les analyses ADN menées à la suite de la découverte du squelette de Richard III en 2012 ont mis en évidence une illégitimité sur la lignée agnatique, mais sans qu'on identifie ladite illégitimité sur les descendants de Jean de Gand, depuis Henri IV à Henri VI, et donc de la lignée des rois Tudors.
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62. Il fut aidé par le duc de Bretagne, voir Albert le Grand, Bertrand d'Argentré et Histoire résumée du Moyen Âge…, par M. Petit Baroncourt.
63. 森、P166 - P169、エチュヴェリー、P61、川北、P112 - P113、城戸、P64、ロイル、P74 - P82、君塚、P152 - P156。
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