Murad II

Early life and accession

Murad was born in Amasya in June 1404 to the Ottoman prince Mehmed Çelebi, later Sultan Mehmed I.^[1][2] Murad's early childhood coincided with the Ottoman civil war.^[3] His grandfather Bayezid I had been defeated by Timur at the Battle of Ankara in 1402.^[4][5][6] The identity of his mother is reported differently in surviving sources: fifteenth-century historian Şükrullah and modern historian Halil İnalcık wrote that she was a concubine, early twentieth-century historian Hüseyin Hüsâmeddin Yasar named her as Şahzade Hatun, daughter of Divitdar Ahmed Pasha of Canik, while most historians identify her as Emine Hatun, daughter of Prince Nasir al-Din Muhammad of the Dulkadirid Beylik.^{[1][2][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]} Byzantine chronicler George Sphrantzes claimed that Murad's mother was of Greek Christian lineage.^[16]

Murad spent his early childhood in Amasya, which served as his father's base during the civil conflict. In 1410, he accompanied his father to the administrative center of Edirne or Bursa, receiving palace instruction from scholars, administrators, and military tutors.^[10][17] In 1415, after Mehmed I consolidated sovereign control, Murad was appointed sanjakbey (provincial governor) of the Rum and Danışmendiye eyalet based at Amasya, accompanied by his mentor (lala) Yörgüç Pasha.^[6][10] This province occupied an eastern border position facing independent Turkmen principalities and potential incursions from Timurid dominions.^[10] Amasya flourished as an intellectual hub where the young prince held weekly literary and theological assemblies with poets, jurists, and Sufi scholars.^[10][18] Around 1416, Murad, alongside Grand Vizier Amasyalı Bayezid Pasha, led provincial contingents to suppress the social and religious uprising instigated by Börklüce Mustafa, a lieutenant of Sheikh Bedreddin, in the regions of Izmir and Saruhan.^{[10][19][20][21]} In 1418, accompanied by his new lala Hamza Bey, he captured the inland and coastal settlements of Samsun from the Candarid ruler.^[10][20][21]

Sultan Mehmed I suffered severe injuries in a hunting fall near Edirne in May 1421. Anticipating factional strife and dynastic crisis, the dying monarch summoned Grand Vizier Bayezid Pasha and Vizier Çandarlı İbrahim Pasha, instructing them to conceal his demise until Murad could arrive from Amasya to claim the throne.^[18][22] Mehmed I also sought to place his younger sons, Yusuf and Mahmud, under Byzantine custody in Constantinople to protect them from dynastic execution.^[23][24][25] The ministers concealed Mehmed's death for 41 days, giving out that the sultan was ill, and sent the Janissary commander Alvan Bey to bring Murad.^[26][27] Murad traveled to Bursa, where he met his father's funeral cortege on 25 June 1421 (23 Jumada al-Thani 824 AH).^[18][28][29] He took the throne at the age of 17 with the support of the state dignitaries and the Janissaries.^[1][10][18] During the enthronement (cülus), the Sufi master Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Ali al-Bukhari (known as Amir Sultan) girded Murad with the Sword of Osman, initiating a ceremonial practice that endured throughout Ottoman history.^[30] To project descent from the Oghuz Turks and the Kayı lineage, Murad ordered the imprint of two arrows and a bow, the emblem of the Kayı clan, onto state coinage, a design practice maintained until the reign of Suleiman I.^[31][32]

Dynastic struggles and pretenders

Upon his accession, Murad faced challenges to his sovereign authority, beginning with the release of his uncle Mustafa Çelebi, known pejoratively in court annals as Düzmece (the Impostor) Mustafa.^[28][33][34] Byzantine Emperor Manuel II and co-emperor John VIII had held Mustafa on the island of Lemnos and his ally Junayd of Aydın in monastic confinement in Constantinople.^[28][35] When Emperor Manuel II learned that Murad would not send his younger brothers Yusuf and Mahmud to Constantinople or pay for the upkeep of Mustafa and Junayd, he released the two in 1421.^[25] Mustafa had pledged to return to the empire the cities on the Marmara and Black Sea coasts, as well as Thessaly, if his revolt succeeded.^{[10][23][28][36][37]} Mustafa was transported to Rumelia aboard ten Byzantine galleys commanded by Demetrios Laskaris Leontares.^[28] Many Rumelian frontier commanders (uc beyleri), including Turahan Bey and descendants of Evrenos, joined Mustafa because they favored a mature prince over a youth.^[38][39] To affirm his identity, Mustafa showed the lords a healed wound that he said he had received fighting alongside Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara, and the lords believed him.^[9]

Revolt of Mustafa Çelebi

Mustafa captured Serres and Gallipoli, then entered Edirne and took the throne on 30 August 1421 (1 Ramadan 824 AH).^[9][40] In Edirne he declared his rule and had the khutbah read and coins struck in his name.^{[9][32][39][40]} Murad dispatched Grand Vizier Bayezid Pasha across the Dardanelles with imperial troops to suppress the rebellion.^[39][40] The armies clashed at Sazlıdere near Edirne, where the majority of imperial soldiers defected to Mustafa's side.^{[32][39][40][41]} Bayezid Pasha and his brother Hamza Bey surrendered; upon the insistence of Junayd, Bayezid Pasha was executed by beheading, becoming the first Ottoman grand vizier killed in civil conflict.^[32][39][40]

Mustafa refused to hand Gallipoli over to the Byzantines as agreed.^[42] With an army of 12,000 cavalry and 5,000 infantry, he crossed from Gallipoli to Anatolia on ships from Genoese Galata to besiege Bursa.^[24] He landed near Lapseki on 20 January 1422.^[9][43][44] Murad took up positions along the Nilüfer River near the bridge of Lopadion (Ulubat) with an army numbering around 125,000 cavalry and infantry contingents.^[9][43][45] The sultan's ministers deployed political maneuvers rather than immediate general combat: Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey, newly released from imprisonment in Tokat, stood at the riverbank at night calling Rumelian border commanders by name, guaranteeing royal pardons if they defected back to Murad.^[46][47] Vizier Hacı İvaz Pasha sent messages alleging that the Rumelian lords had betrayed Mustafa.^[46] Murad also negotiated with Junayd's brother Hamza, promising Junayd hereditary rule over the Beylik of Aydın if he deserted.^[10][48][49] Junayd fled during the night with his personal retinue.^[49] When Mustafa's forces attempted an assault across the bridge, five hundred Janissaries repulsed them.^[46] Facing widespread defections and weakened by illness, Mustafa fled westward to Gallipoli.^[46][50][51]

Murad pursued Mustafa to Lampsakos and Gallipoli. Lacking transport vessels, the sultan secured seven galleys and 2,000 armored troops from the Genoese podestà of New Phocaea, Giovanni Adorno, in exchange for 5,000 gold ducats and commercial privileges.^{[10][18][44][46]} Crossing the straits, Murad laid siege to Gallipoli, forcing Mustafa to flee toward Edirne. Mustafa seized part of the treasury and headed toward the Wallachian border, but imperial trackers caught him at Kızılağaç Yenicesi in the Tunca Valley.^{[9][10][18][36][52]} Mustafa was returned to Edirne, where Murad ordered him publicly hanged from the fortress battlements in 1422 like a common criminal; according to Doukas, this form of execution was chosen to present Mustafa as an impostor rather than a member of the dynasty.^{[9][10][18][53]}

Siege of Constantinople (1422)

Determined to retaliate against the Byzantine emperors for releasing Mustafa and fostering civil war, Murad rejected diplomatic apologies brought by imperial envoys and prepared to capture Constantinople.^[43][54][55] On 10 June 1422, vanguard contingents under Rumelian beylerbey Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey arrived before the city walls and ravaged the surrounding countryside.^[56] Murad arrived on 20 June at the head of the main army, estimated between 30,000 and 50,000 soldiers, accompanied by heavy siege works and large falconet siege guns (şâhîn cannon), marking the initial recorded employment of these firearms in Ottoman siege operations.^[43][57][58] The mystic scholar Amir Sultan joined the camp with five hundred disciples.^[57] The siege lasted nearly four months. Byzantine defenders, led by John VIII Palaiologos, sustained repairs along the Theodosian Walls, with women and civilians actively participating.^[57] The heaviest assault came on 24 August 1422, but it failed, and the Ottoman troops suffered heavy losses in a battle that lasted all day.^[57][59][60] The siege was abandoned in early September when reports arrived that Murad's younger brother had raised an open rebellion in Anatolia.^[10][57][59]

Revolt of Küçük Mustafa

Murad's thirteen-year-old brother, Mustafa Çelebi (known as Küçük Mustafa), had been stationed as governor in the Hamid province under his lala, Sharabdar Ilyas Pasha.^{[10][24][61][62]} Seeking to divert Murad from Constantinople, Byzantine diplomacy, coordinated with Yakup Bey II of Germiyan and Mehmed Bey of Karaman, urged Küçük Mustafa to claim the sultanate.^{[2][10][43][61]} Supported by Karamanid and Germiyanid contingents, the young prince marched on Bursa. The town's garrison and commercial leaders (Ahis) stated their willingness to resist, prompting the rebel force to march to Nicaea (İznik), which fell after a forty-day siege.^[10][24][61] Küçük Mustafa installed himself in the palace of Çandarlı İbrahim Pasha, declared his reign, and received ceremonial honors.^[10][24]

Murad lifted the siege of Constantinople on 6 September 1422 and crossed to the Anatolian shore.^[10][18][59] He entrusted western frontier defense to Ali Bey Evrenosoğlu and dispatched Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey with cavalry toward İznik.^[10][63] Meanwhile, the sultan secretly contacted Sharabdar Ilyas Pasha, offering him the rank of Rumelian beylerbey if he betrayed the prince.^{[10][18][63][64]} Ilyas Pasha delayed the prince and kept him occupied within the town.^[63] When Mihaloğlu raided İznik in February 1423, he was wounded while the prince's supporters tried to defend the prince and carry him off, but the prince's tutor Şarapdar Ilyas put the young prince on his own horse and handed him over to Murad.^[10][18][63] Murad ordered his brother executed by strangulation, and his body was displayed from a fig tree before being transported to Bursa for burial beside Mehmed I in the Green Tomb.^{[10][18][63][64]} Murad's remaining younger brothers, Mahmud and Yusuf, were blinded and held in Bursa, where both succumbed to plague in 1429.^[10][60][65]

Consolidation in Anatolia

Following the suppression of dynastic claimants, Murad moved systematically to subordinate the autonomous Turkmen principalities that had exploited civil disruptions to regain independence.^[66][67] In 1423, Murad led an army against İsfendiyar Bey of Candar, who had seized Çankırı, Tosya, Kalecik, and Safranbolu (Taraklıboru) during Küçük Mustafa's revolt.^[66] The Ottoman army defeated the Candarids in the Battle of Taraklı-Borlu, compelling İsfendiyar Bey to flee to Sinop and petition for peace.^[66] Under the settlement, İsfendiyar Bey acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty, renounced claims to the seized towns, surrendered a share of local mining revenues, and provided military levies, cementing the agreement by marrying his granddaughter Tacünnisa Hatice Halime Hatun to Murad.^[10][18][66]

The sultan then intervened in a Karamanid succession dispute triggered by the death of Nasir al-Din Mehmed Bey during an artillery bombardment while besieging Ottoman-held Antalya in 1423.^[66] Mehmed Bey's brother Alaeddin Ali seized power, prompting Mehmed's sons Ibrahim and Isa to seek aid from Murad.^[66][68] Ibrahim and Isa married Murad's sisters İlaldı and İnci, and Murad backed Ibrahim for the Karamanid throne in exchange for the Hamid principality, which the Karamanids had seized in 1421.^[69] Murad gave Ibrahim troops with which he defeated his uncle, and Ibrahim in return handed the Ottomans Isparta and Eğirdir, towns of the former Hamid beylik that Timur had given to the Karamanid ruler Mehmed in 1402.^[66][68] Isa Bey was assigned a Rumelian sanjak, while the deposed uncle was pensioned off to Sofia.^[66]

In 1425, Junayd of Aydın rebelled again, renouncing Ottoman vassalage, recapturing Izmir, and seeking alliances with Venice, Byzantium, and neighboring principalities.^[10][69] Murad dispatched the beylerbey of Anatolia, Oruç Bey son of Timurtaş, who raided Aydın but died during operations.^[70] Murad then appointed Hamza Bey, brother of the slain Bayezid Pasha, alongside Halil Yahşi Bey, who held personal vendettas against Junayd.^[69][71] An Ottoman army defeated Junayd's forces under his son Kurt Hasan near Akhisar, capturing the prince.^[71] Junayd fled to the coastal citadel of Ipsili opposite Samos.^[69][72] Ipsili was well fortified and inaccessible from land but open to the sea, and Hamza Bey asked the Genoese of Chios for help, after which three ships closed the siege from the sea.^[69][73] Junayd surrendered on condition that his life be spared.^[66][69] His resistance appears to have lasted until 1426, and Hamza Bey and Halil Yahşi Bey strangled him together with his followers and relatives to avenge Bayezid Pasha.^[66][70] When Murad learned of Junayd's death, he ordered the execution of Junayd's brother and of his son Kurt Hasan, who were held prisoner in Gallipoli.^[66][69][70] The territory of Aydın was annexed as an Ottoman province, as was the Beylik of Menteşe after its ruler Ahmed Bey fled to the Aq Qoyunlu dominions.^[66][67][70] In 1428 or 1429, Yakup Bey II of Germiyan died without male issue, having bequeathed his entire principality to Murad, enabling peaceful Ottoman annexation of Kütahya and surrounding lands.^[67][74][75]

Murad maintained a cautious diplomatic posture toward the Timurid Empire, ruled by Shahrukh from Herat, who claimed imperial suzerainty over former Ilkhanid and Seljuk territories in Anatolia and gave shelter to displaced Turkmen lords.^[43] In 1434 and 1435, Shahrukh campaigned into Azerbaijan, deposing the Qara Qoyunlu ruler Iskandar and installing Jahan Shah. Iskandar sought refuge in the Ottoman realm, spending the winter of 1435–1436 in Tokat, which generated diplomatic tension with the Timurids. After Shahrukh withdrew his army back to Khorasan, Murad consolidated central Anatolian corridors, sending Yörgüç Pasha to subordinate Turkmen leaders around Tokat, Amasya, and Canik.^[59]

Balkan campaigns and Venetian war

Having stabilized Western Anatolia, Murad settled affairs with the Byzantine Empire. Following Manuel II's death in 1425, John VIII Palaiologos formally submitted to Ottoman terms on 22 February 1425.^[66][76][77] The Byzantines ceded all remaining coastal fortresses along the Black Sea and the Propontis, with the exception of Silivri and Terkos, and agreed to pay an annual tribute recorded as 30,000 gold ducats or 300,000 silver akçes.^{[2][58][66][77]}

War with Venice and the capture of Thessalonica

Thessalonica had been under Ottoman siege since 1422 led by Evrenosoğlu Barak.^[78] Its governor, Despot Andronikos Palaiologos, lacked sufficient garrison forces and supplies, and in September 1423 surrendered the city to the Republic of Venice.^[21][76][79] The Venetians spoke of defending the commercial port against the Ottomans while rebuilding it as 'another Venice'.^[79] Murad told the Venetians that their presence in the city was illegitimate, writing that his grandfather Bayezid had conquered it and that it was his by inheritance.^[58][80] Ottoman forces imposed a blockade, and naval raiding squadrons attacked Venetian possessions in the Aegean and the Morea, while the Venetian navy established a naval blockade across the Dardanelles.^[10][21][80] Venetian envoys sent to negotiate Ottoman recognition were detained by Murad.^[80][81]

Venice sent a fleet under Admiral Andrea Mocenigo to relieve the city, but the Ottoman fleet defeated it in the Gallipoli strait and sank the admiral's ship.^[79] Living conditions in Thessalonica deteriorated as famine spread and ethnic friction intensified between Catholic Venetian administrators and Orthodox Greek citizens.^[79] After securing the northern frontier through a truce with Hungary in 1428, Murad assembled a large army equipped with artillery to take the city.^[82][83] Encouraged by his commanders to offer battle plunder to the troops, the Ottoman army launched a general assault on 29 March 1430 (4 Rajab 833 AH).^[10][83] Scaling ladders breached the eastern fortifications, and Ottoman forces took the city after three days of combat.^[83] Many Venetian defenders and armed citizens were killed, and thousands were captured.^[83] Murad entered Thessalonica on the fourth day, converted the central Church of the Virgin Mary (Acheiropoietos) into a mosque, and protected the residential neighborhoods from continued plundering.^[83] He redeemed numerous captives with royal funds, ordered Muslim families from Macedonia to settle in the upper city, and permitted surviving Greeks to retain their homes.^[83] On 4 September 1430 (15 Dhu al-Hijjah 833 AH), Venice signed a peace treaty acknowledging Ottoman sovereignty over Thessalonica and agreeing to pay annual commercial fees.^{[6][10][80][82]}

Campaigns in Epirus, Albania, and Wallachia

Immediately following the fall of Thessalonica, Murad directed Rumelian beylerbey Sinan Pasha toward Epirus.^[84][85] Carlo I Tocco, ruler of Epirus, had died in 1430 and was succeeded by his nephew Carlo II Tocco, but Carlo I's illegitimate sons fought among themselves over the inheritance.^[79][84][86] Weary of internal succession wars, civic representatives from Ioannina surrendered the city keys to Sinan Pasha on 9 October 1430 (1 Safar 834 AH) under formal imperial guarantees (known as the Decree of Sinan Pasha), which safeguarded Christian property, ecclesiastical rights, and personal freedoms.^[79][84][86] Ioannina thus passed to Ottoman rule by agreement, while Carlo II Tocco remained ruler of Arta as an Ottoman vassal.^[79][84]

In Albania, John Kastrioti had attempted to break Ottoman vassalage during the siege of Thessalonica by seeking Venetian protection.^[66] After the capture of Thessalonica, İshak Bey, the governor of Skopje, attacked the lands of John Kastrioti, seized his fortified places and destroyed all but two of them.^[10][18] Kastrioti delivered his four sons, including George Kastrioti (Skanderbeg), as hostages to Edirne, where they were educated at the Enderun academy and converted to Islam.^[10][24][66] When Ottoman land surveys (tahrir) and the timar system were introduced between 1430 and 1432, Albanian chieftains led by Gjergj Arianiti and Andrew Thopia revolted.^[10] An Ottoman cavalry force under Ali Bey Evrenosoğlu was ambushed in the narrow Shkumbin Valley in the winter of 1432–1433, suffering severe casualties.^[10] Arianiti continued guerrilla operations through 1434 until Ali Bey and Turahan Bey crushed the main insurgent concentrations in 1435 and 1436.^[10] When John Kastrioti died in 1431, Murad annexed his lands and sent Skanderbeg to govern them in his father's place with 5,000 horsemen.^[84][87][88]

North of the Danube, Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, incited Vlad II Dracul, voivode of Wallachia, to raid Ottoman territory along the Silistra frontier.^[57][63] Firuz Bey, warden of the border marches, repelled the Wallachian incursions and raided deep across the Danube, carrying off captives and loot.^[63] Dracul traveled to Edirne with his sons, paid two years of tribute, and acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty, leaving his sons Vlad (later Vlad the Impaler) and Radu as hostages.^[57][63][84]

Hungarian confrontation and the fall of Serbia

Despot Stefan Lazarević died on 19 July 1427.^[80] Sigismund of Hungary then occupied Belgrade, which the Treaty of Tata of May 1426 had assigned to him.^[6][89] Murad contested the succession of Đurađ Branković, claiming dynastic inheritance through his grand-aunt Olivera Despina.^[80] Ottoman forces seized Kruševac (Alacahisar) and Niš, and besieged the silver-mining stronghold of Novo Brdo.^[89][90] Ottoman commander Jeremija, garrison warden of Golubac, refused to hand the fortress to the Hungarians without monetary compensation and surrendered it to Murad.^[6] After heavy fighting between the Ottomans and the Hungarians, Sigismund was compelled in 1428 to agree a three-year truce with Murad that made the Danube the boundary between Ottoman and Hungarian lands.^[89][91][92] Branković accepted double vassalage, agreeing to pay Murad 50,000 gold ducats annually, deliver 1,000 to 2,000 cavalry for imperial campaigns, and betroth his daughter Mara to the sultan.^[6][84][92]

In 1435, Murad invaded Karaman after Ibrahim Bey seized the border region of Hamid and intercepted a prized horse intended for the sultan.^[10][87][93] After Murad entered Konya and forced Ibrahim into the mountains of Taşeli, peace was mediated by Ibrahim's wife İlaldi Hatun (Murad's sister), requiring Karaman to cede Akşehir and send hostage princes.^[87][94] Murad then turned toward Hungary to retaliate against Sigismund.^[87][94] In 1436, Ottoman forces under Ali Bey Evrenosoğlu, joined by Đurađ Branković and Vlad Dracul, crossed the Danube, raided Transylvania and besieged Hermannstadt (Sibiu).^[87][94] Sigismund died on 9 December 1437, leaving Hungary embroiled in succession crises.^[95] Taking advantage of this, Murad campaigned in 1438 through the Banat and Transylvania, establishing forward posts and taking tens of thousands of captives.^[10][87]

When the newly elected German and Hungarian king Albert II formed ties with Đurađ Branković and Vlad Dracul, Murad demanded the surrender of Smederevo, Branković's new fortress capital on the Danube.^[96][97] Branković fled to Hungary, leaving his son Grgur to defend the city.^[96][97] After a three-month siege, Smederevo fell on 5 September 1438, or on 29 August by another account.^{[97][98][99][100]} Grgur and his brother Stefan were imprisoned and blinded on 8 May 1441 in Didymoteicho or Tokat, despite the appeals of their sister Mara in the imperial harem.^[97] Murad made the conquered Serbian lands a sanjak centred on Smederevo, ending the Serbian Despotate.^[100][101] Albert II led a relief force but suffered defeat at the Battle of Dobra Tekke; he died shortly thereafter from dysentery in October 1439.

Siege of Belgrade and the Danubian frontier

In April 1440, Murad marched an army of 35,000 men to besiege Belgrade, the major fortress guarding the southern Hungarian border.^[6][97] The citadel was defended by a garrison of 500 men under a Ragusan monk named John, reinforced by German, Czech, and Italian mercenaries equipped with primitive firearms and artillery.^[97] The Ottomans bombarded the defenses with guns captured at Smederevo and attempted sapping and direct assaults, but the defenders repelled them and burned Ottoman assault towers.^[97] Unable to take the city after a six-month siege, Murad lifted it.^{[6][10][18][97][102][103]} Ottoman units raiding across the Sava into the Banat and Srem captured considerable plunder and captives.^[102] Retiring southward, Murad besieged and conquered Novo Brdo in Kosovo, acquiring control over its extensive silver and gold mining facilities.^[102][104]

The Crusade of Varna and abdication

The Ottoman failure at Belgrade encouraged European powers to coordinate against Ottoman expansion. At the Council of Florence (1438–1439), Emperor John VIII Palaiologos accepted ecclesiastical union with the Roman Catholic Church in return for Western military assistance.^{[6][105][106][107]} Pope Eugene IV proclaimed a crusade, dispatching Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini to mobilize Central European forces.^{[6][104][108][109]} The Polish monarch Władysław III was crowned King of Hungary, while John Hunyadi, appointed voivode of Transylvania and captain of Belgrade, spearheaded aggressive defense operations along the border.^[6][10][110]

The Long Campaign and Ottoman reverses

In March 1442, Mezid Bey, sanjakbey of Vidin, raided into Transylvania with a raiding force but was ambushed near Sibiu by Hunyadi; Mezid and his son were killed, and the raiding corps lost 20,000 men.^{[110][111][112]} Seeking retribution, Rumelian beylerbey Hadım Şehabeddin Pasha marched into Wallachia in September 1442 with an army of 80,000 men from Rumelia and Anatolia.^{[110][111][112]} Hunyadi ambushed and routed Şehabeddin's army at the Battle of the Ialomița River (Vazaq), killing fifteen sanjakbeys and capturing the Ottoman baggage train, prompting Murad to dismiss Şehabeddin from his vizierate and command.^{[110][112][113]}

These victories spurred the launch of the 'Long Campaign' in autumn 1443.^[6][10][104] A Christian coalition army of approximately 25,000 men, commanded by King Władysław III, Hunyadi, and Đurađ Branković, crossed the Danube at Smederevo in October.^{[10][114][115][116]} Near Niš in October 1443, the crusaders defeated the Rumelian army under its new beylerbey Kasım Pasha, who lost 4,000 men captured and 2,000 killed.^{[10][110][116][117]} The crusaders seized Sofia on 1 December and advanced toward Thrace.^[10][116] Murad mobilized imperial reserves and blocked the Zlatitsa Pass in the Sredna Gora mountains.^{[110][116][117]} The Ottomans constructed palisades, diverted water that froze into ice barriers along the rocky tracks, and halted the crusader advance.^[110][117] Due to bitter cold and lack of provisions, the crusaders began retreating on 16 December 1443.^{[110][116][117]} Ottoman pursuers under Kasım Pasha and Turahan Bey were ambushed and routed at the Battle of Kunovica on 2 or 5 January 1444; Grand Vizier Halil Pasha's brother Çandarlı Mahmud Bey and several sanjakbeys were taken prisoner.^{[110][113][116][118]}

Treaties of Edirne-Szeged and Yenişehir

Concurrently, internal and external crises compounded for the Ottoman state. In Albania, Skanderbeg had deserted the Ottoman army during the retreat from Niš, took control of the fortress of Krujë with 300 Albanian horsemen, established the League of Lezhë in March 1444, and routed Ottoman detachments at Torvioll.^{[10][88][119][120][121]} In the Peloponnese, Constantine Palaiologos took control of most of the peninsula, repaired the Hexamilion walls and forced the ruler of Attica, an Ottoman tributary, to accept his overlordship.^[119][120] In Anatolia, Ibrahim Bey of Karaman rebelled, raiding and pillaging Ankara, Beyşehir, and Kütahya.^{[10][117][122][123]} Religious scholars in Cairo, including Shafi'i Grand Mufti Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani and Hanafi jurist Saad al-Din al-Dayri, issued legal opinions condemning Ibrahim Bey for striking the Ottoman rear during military actions against Christian adversaries.^{[110][117][122]} The sudden death in June 1443 of Murad's eldest surviving son and heir apparent, Şehzade Alaeddin Ali, caused the sultan severe emotional exhaustion.^{[113][122][124][125]}

According to Doukas, Murad wanted to end the fighting quickly, and through his wife Mara Branković he sent envoys to her father Đurađ, who mediated the negotiations.^{[2][100][126]} On 12 June 1444, Murad concluded a ten-year peace treaty in Edirne with King Władysław's envoy Stojko Gisdanić, which was ratified by the Hungarian king in Szeged on 15 August 1444.^{[10][100][110][119][120]} Under the Peace of Edirne-Szeged, Serbia was restored as an autonomous buffer state under Đurađ Branković, who reacquired twenty-four fortresses including Smederevo, Golubac, and Novo Brdo, as well as the release of his blinded sons. Hungary gained sovereignty over Wallachia, while Vlad Dracul continued to pay tribute; Mahmud Bey was to be freed for a ransom of 70,000 ducats; and the Ottomans agreed to stop campaigns north of the Danube while Hungary pledged not to cross it. The Hungarian king swore on the Bible and Murad on the Quran to keep the terms.^[10][122] Murad then crossed to Anatolia and in July 1444 concluded the Peace of Yenişehir (Sevgendname) with Ibrahim Bey of Karaman, leaving Akşehir and Beyşehir to Karaman while requiring Ibrahim to recognise him as overlord.^{[10][110][117][127]}

Abdication in favor of Mehmed II

Having made peace in the west and the east, Murad took a step without precedent in Ottoman history and abdicated in August 1444 at the dynasty's estate at Mihaliç in Karacabey.^{[10][59][128]} Tired, and perhaps worn down by his troubles and the death of his son Alaeddin Ali, he gave up the throne to his son Mehmed II.^[129] Mehmed was then twelve years old by one account and fourteen by another.^{[10][59][129][130]} Murad retired to the Aegean town of Manisa to pursue religious devotion, prayer, and dervish study, accompanied by a small retinue including İshak Bey and Hamza Bey.^[5][10][130] The revenues of the Saruhan sanjak were allocated to support his retirement.^[131]

Battle of Varna (1444)

News of Murad's abdication and the accession of a twelve-year-old child caused immediate political reassessments in Europe. Cardinal Cesarini and Pope Eugene IV argued that oaths sworn to Muslims were non-binding on Christians, absolving King Władysław III of his religious commitments.^{[6][131][132][133][134]} On 4 August 1444, only fifty days after the agreement, Władysław agreed to renew the crusade.^[131][134] In September 1444, a crusader army of roughly 16,000 to 25,000 troops crossed the Danube at Orșova, reinforced by 4,000 Wallachians under Mircea, son of Vlad Dracul.^[10][100] They bypassed the inland mountain routes, advanced eastward through Vidin, Nikopol, and Shumen, and established a coastal camp at Varna on the Black Sea.^[10][135] Concurrently, a combined Venetian and Papal fleet blocked the Dardanelles to prevent Ottoman forces in Anatolia from reinforcing Europe.^{[10][130][135]}

With the capital Edirne panicked by the crusader advance, urban fires, and theological discord, Grand Vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha urged the young sultan to recall his father.^{[10][130][136]} Mehmed II dispatched envoys summoning Murad from Manisa. According to historical tradition, when Murad hesitated to compromise his son's royal status, Mehmed sent a written directive: 'If you are the sultan, come and defend your state; if I am the sultan, I command you to come and lead the army.'^[10][130] Evading the Venetian blockade at Gallipoli, Murad transported his Anatolian contingents across the Bosphorus at Anadolu Hisarı with the assistance of Genoese transports paid one gold piece per soldier, while Ottoman shore artillery covered the crossing.^[10][130] Uniting with the Rumelian army, Murad marched an army of 60,000 men to Varna.^{[10][130][137]}

The armies met at the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444.^[10][138] One account gives the date as 28 Rajab 848 AH, which it equates with 11 November.^[130] The battle began with Hunyadi's cavalry assaults shattering the Ottoman left wing and killing Anatolian beylerbey Karaca Pasha.^[130] When King Władysław charged the Ottoman center with heavy cavalry toward the imperial royal standards, Murad ordered his ranks to yield and draw the king into an encirclement.^[130] Władysław's horse was brought down by Janissary veteran Hoca Karaca Hızır Agha, who decapitated the king.^{[10][130][133]} The king's head and the severed text of the broken Peace of Szeged were mounted on lances, spreading panic through the Christian lines.^{[10][130][133][139]} The Ottoman army executed a general counter-offensive that broke the crusader army, killing Cardinal Cesarini and capturing the camp and 250 supply wagons.^{[10][130][131]} Hunyadi escaped across the Danube with a small escort.^[10][130] Murad sent victory letters and captive nobles to neighboring Muslim rulers, including Mamluk Sultan Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq in Cairo, where Murad's name was honored in the Friday khutbah after the Abbasid Caliph.^[130][133] Following the victory, Murad relinquished command and returned to his retreat in Manisa.^{[59][130][136]}

Second reign and final campaigns

Murad's withdrawal left young Mehmed II facing administration problems and factional rivalries between Grand Vizier Çandarlı Halil Pasha, who favored diplomatic caution, and viziers Zağanos Pasha and Hadım Şehabeddin Pasha, who advocated an immediate assault on Constantinople.^{[6][119][136][140]} In 1445 and 1446, political instability mounted. In Edirne, a severe commercial crisis emerged after Mehmed's government debased the silver akçe, reducing its weight from 5.75 to 5.25 carats, which provoked protests from troops and merchants.^{[130][136][141]} A major fire ravaged Edirne's commercial quarters.^[130][136] In spring 1446, the Janissaries launched the Buçuktepe rebellion, marching to the hill of Buçuktepe, pillaging the palace of Şehabeddin Pasha, and demanding wage increases, which were settled by adding half an akçe (buçuk) to daily stipends.^{[100][130][136]} Concerned by the unrest and the threat of the Janissaries backing pretender Orhan Çelebi, Çandarlı Halil Pasha persuaded Murad to resume the throne.^{[6][130][131][136][141]} Murad returned to Edirne in September 1446, reassumed power, and reassigned Mehmed to Manisa as sanjakbey alongside his tutors Zağanos and Şehabeddin.^{[130][131][136][141]}

Campaigns in the Morea

To restore military discipline and curb Byzantine encroachment in southern Greece, Murad launched an expedition against the Despotate of the Morea in late 1446.^{[134][140][142]} Constantine Palaiologos and his brother Thomas had expanded into Central Greece and fortified the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth.^{[134][140][142][143]} Supported by the Florentine Duke of Athens, Nerio II Acciaioli, Murad advanced with an army equipped with heavy bombardment artillery directed by Turahan Bey.^{[134][142][143][144]} On 10 December 1446 (Ramadan 850 AH), Ottoman artillery breached the Hexamilion stone walls.^{[134][140][142][144][145]} Ottoman assault infantry stormed Corinth and advanced across the peninsula, capturing Patras and taking approximately 60,000 captives.^{[134][143][144][145]} Constantine and Thomas Palaiologos submitted to Ottoman vassalage, demolished remaining fortifications along the Isthmus, and agreed to pay annual tribute.^{[142][143][144]}

Second Battle of Kosovo (1448)

In 1448, John Hunyadi, serving as regent of Hungary, organized another crusader army of 22,000 to 30,000 men composed of Hungarian, Wallachian, Polish, Bohemian, and German contingents.^{[100][140][144]} Hunyadi marched into Serbia, intending to unite his forces with Skanderbeg's Albanian army.^[140][146] Despot Đurađ Branković maintained neutrality, refused passage through his fortified centers, and warned Murad of the crusader movement.^[140] Abandoning an ongoing campaign in Albania, Murad mobilized an army of 40,000 to 60,000 troops, including Anatolian forces and a contingent sent voluntarily by Ibrahim Bey of Karaman, assembling at Sofia before advancing to Kosovo Polje.^{[140][144][146][147]}

The Second Battle of Kosovo lasted three days from 17 to 19 October 1448 (18–20 Sha'ban 852 AH).^{[146][147][148]} Prince Mehmed also took part in the battle.^[144][149] On 18 October, the main battle was fought from late morning until sunset and went on into the next day, when the Hungarian forces broke and fled.^[147] During the battle, the 8,000 Wallachians who had come with Hunyadi went over to the Ottomans.^[150] On 19 October, Ottoman infantry overwhelmed the German and Bohemian wagon fort (Wagenburg), routing the crusaders.^[147] Hunyadi fled the field but was captured in Serbia by Branković, who imprisoned him at Smederevo until the Hungarian estates paid 100,000 florins ransom, restored seized Serbian properties, and betrothed Hunyadi's son to Branković's granddaughter.^[151] The victory ended major Christian crusading efforts to dislodge the Ottomans from the Balkans.^[6][148]

Wars against Skanderbeg in Albania

Following the consolidation of southern Greece and the Danube, Murad concentrated efforts on subduing Skanderbeg's resistance in northern Albania.^{[100][119][140]} In summer 1448, Murad captured the strategic border fortress of Svetigrad after severing its water supplies, although Skanderbeg continued guerrilla ambushes in the surrounding highlands.^[144][152] In May 1450, Murad, accompanied by Prince Mehmed, besieged Krujë for the second time.^{[147][153][154]} The citadel was garrisoned by 1,500 Albanians and European mercenaries under Count Urana, supported by French-managed artillery.^[147] Ottoman siege artillery, including guns firing projectiles weighing two quintals, battered the walls for five months, but breaches were defended and Ottoman scaling attacks repulsed.^{[147][153][154]} The town was strongly placed on a hilltop, the Ottoman army was worn out by continuous wars, winter was approaching, and reports came that Hungary was preparing a new attack.^[119][147] Murad therefore offered to recognize Skanderbeg as prince of Albania in return for an annual tribute to the Ottoman state.^[119][147] Skanderbeg rejected the offer, and Murad lifted the siege in October 1450, returning to Edirne to prepare reinforcements.^{[119][147][154]}

Death and succession

In late 1450, Murad celebrated the marriage of Prince Mehmed to Sitti Mükrime Hatun, daughter of the Dulkadirid ruler Süleyman Bey, in Edirne with three months of festivities.^[155][156] Shortly after the wedding festivities, Murad rested with his companions on an island formed by the branching of rivers near Edirne, where he felt unwell, his head and body heavy, and asked to be taken to his palace in the city.^[155] Doukas attributed his death to an epileptic fit, and Hammer-Purgstall to apoplexy.^[155][157] He died in Edirne Palace on 3 February 1451 (1 Muharram 855 AH) at age forty-six, after a total reign of nearly thirty years.^{[1][147][157]}

In his final testament witnessed by his viziers, Murad designated Çandarlı Halil Pasha as chief advisor to his successor, enjoined Mehmed to complete the conquest of Constantinople, and requested that state funds not be used for his funeral.^{[144][147][158]} Instead, he ordered that personal revenue from his ruby and diamond rings defray the burial costs.^[158] He instructed that his tomb remain unroofed: 'Do not build a domed mausoleum over me as is done for great sultans; erect only walls on four sides, and leave the top open so the mercy of God's rain may fall upon me.'^[158] To maintain administrative order, his ministers concealed his death for thirteen to sixteen days until Mehmed II arrived from Manisa to take power.^[147] Murad was buried in the Muradiye Complex in Bursa beside his son Alaeddin Ali, becoming the last Ottoman sultan interred in the old capital of Bursa.^[147] Following his second enthronement, Mehmed II ordered the execution of Murad's infant son Küçük Ahmed, legalizing the practice through the royal 'Law of Fratricide' (Kanunname).^[159][160]

Governance, culture, and legacy

Murad II actively shaped his imperial authority through the ideological persona of the ghazi king, presenting himself as a defender of Islamic frontiers against European adversaries.^[4][161] After his accession, old Persian, Arabic and Anatolian epics were translated into Turkish so that Murad could draw on the legends of ghazi kings, and he modelled his conduct on the caliphs of the Battalname.^[161] His military expeditions and battlefield addresses were compiled into the biographical chronicle Gazavât-ı Sultan Murad.^[161] He dispatched annual charitable endowments (surre) of 3,500 gold dinars to the holy cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem.^{[162][163][164]} Arab historian Ibn Taghribirdi praised him as an equitable sovereign committed to warfare in defense of Islam, while Byzantine chronicler Doukas remarked upon his restraint and fair treatment of non-Muslim subjects.^{[148][165][166]}

Murad's reign marked a transition in Ottoman literary life from Persian and Arabic primacy toward the development of Turkish as a court language.^[167][168] Under royal patron sponsorship, scholars translated and composed major works, including Yazıcızade Âlî's Tarih-i Âl-i Selçuk, which documented Oghuz genealogical traditions; Yazıcıoğlu Mehmed's religious narrative Muhammediye; Molla Arif Ali's Dânişmendnâme; and Mercimek Ahmed's accessible prose translation of the Persian mirrors-for-princes text Qabusname.^[147][168] The music theorist Abd al-Qadir Maraghi dedicated his analytical work Maqasid al-Alhan to Murad, presenting a manuscript copy preserved in Topkapı Palace.^[169] Murad wrote poetry under the pen name (mahlas) Muradî and hosted twice-weekly court assemblies that gathered poets, jurists, and dervishes.^{[169][170][171]} His administration maintained close relationships with regional Sufi orders, granting tax exemptions to the disciples of Hacı Bayram Veli and encouraging the growth of the Bayramiyye, Mevlevi, and Zayni orders throughout Anatolia and the Balkans.^[169][172]

Murad oversaw architectural construction in the capitals of Edirne and Bursa financed largely by campaign revenues.^[148] In Bursa, he constructed the Muradiye Complex between 1425 and 1426, comprising a central mosque, madrasa, soup kitchen (imaret), public bathhouse, and dynastic burial gardens.^[173] In Edirne, he commissioned the Muradiye Mosque (1435–1436), noted for its blue-and-white tiles, originally established as a Mevlevi lodge (Mevlevihane); the Darülhadis theological college; and the Üç Şerefeli Mosque, built between 1438 and 1447, which introduced a wide central dome, an expansive arcaded courtyard, and a minaret with three separate spiral balconies that influenced subsequent classical Ottoman architecture.^[148][174] Infrastructure projects included the Uzunköprü bridge over the Ergene River, 392 meters long, which took sixteen years to build and opened in 1443.^[148][173]

The Burgundian knight Bertrandon de la Broquière, who visited the Ottoman court at Edirne in 1432, described Murad as a stocky man with broad Tatar-like facial features, high cheekbones, dark complexion, a rounded beard, a hooked nose, and small eyes, who dressed plainly in red velvet garments and fur hats rather than ostentatious regalia.^[169][175] Broquière recorded that Ottoman state revenues reached 2,500,000 ducats annually and praised the discipline of the sultan's standing forces.^[176]

Family

Murad II contracted diplomatic marriages with daughters of neighboring Christian and Muslim ruling houses to strengthen alliances with those dynasties.^[177][178] His consorts included Tacünnisa Hatice Halime Hatun, daughter of İsfendiyar Bey of Candar, married in 1425; Hatice Hatun, daughter of Taceddin Ibrahim II Bey of Candar, whom some historians identify as identical with Hatice Halime; Hüma Hatun, concubine of undetermined origin, who gave birth to Mehmed II; Mara Branković (Despina Hatun), daughter of Despot Đurađ Branković of Serbia, who married Murad in September 1435, remained Christian throughout her life, and bore no children; Hundi Ümmügülsüm Hatun; and Yeni Hatun, daughter of Şadgeldi Paşazade Mustafa Bey of the Kutluşah of Amasya, although some historians hold that she was more likely the wife of Murad's son Alaeddin Ali.^{[66][159][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185]}

Murad had at least eight sons: Şehzade Ahmed (Büyük Ahmed, 1419–1437), sanjakbey of Amasya; Şehzade Alaeddin Ali (1425–1443), governor of Manisa and Amasya, his favorite son who died during the Karaman campaign; Şehzade Orhan (died 1441 or 1451); Mehmed II (1432–1481), with Hüma Hatun, who succeeded him; Şehzade Hasan (died 1444); and Şehzade Ahmed (Küçük Ahmed, 1450–1451), with Hatice Hatun, executed upon Mehmed II's accession.^{[110][125][159][177][186][187][188][189][190][191]}

He had at least six daughters: Hundi Hatun (born 1423), with Hundi Ümmügülsüm Hatun, who married Mirahur İlyas Bey and later tutor Yaqub Bey; Hatice Hatun (1425 – after 1470), who married Candaroğlu İsmail Kemaleddin Bey and later Isa Bey; Hafsa Hatun (born 1426), who married Kaya Bey of Karaman; Fatma Hatun (1430 – after 1464), who married Grand Vizier Zağanos Pasha and later Mahmud Çelebi; Şahzade Selçuk Hatun (1430–1480), who married Karaca Pasha and later Sinan Pasha; and İlaldi Hatun, who married Kasim Bey of Candar.^{[18][159][192][193][194]}

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79. علي (2018)، ص. 273-275. (عبد الله نبيل علي (2018). الدولة العُثمانيَّة: الدُستور، الإستخلاف والتمكين، سلاطين الدولة العُثمانيَّة، عهد الفوضى (ط. 1). الإسكندرية: مؤسسة شباب الجامعة. ISBN:978-977-212-331-5. OCLC:1057013316. OL:44389084M. QID:Q125657961.)
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85. Имбър 2000, с. 161 – 165. (Имбър, Колин. Османската империя 1300 – 1481. София, Амисития, 2000. ISBN 954-90556-2-0.)
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95. طقوش (2013)، ص. 90-91. (محمد سهيل طقوش (2013). تاريخ العُثمانيين من قيام الدولة إلى الانقلاب على الخلافة (ط. 3). بيروت: دار النفائس. ISBN:978-9953-18-443-2. OCLC:1025663587. QID:Q107311111.)
96. منجم باشي (2009)، ص. 428-429. (أحمد منجم باشي (2009)، جامع الدُّول في التَّاريخ: قسم سلاطين آل عُثمان إلى سنة 1083هـ، تحقيق: غسان علي الرمال (ط. 1)، مكة المكرمة: دار الشفق للطباعة والنشر، OCLC:543658290، QID:Q119705199)
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98. برجاوي (1993)، ص. 66. (سعيد أحمد برجاوي (1993)، الإمبراطوريَّة العُثمانيَّة: تاريخها السياسي والعسكري (ط. 1)، بيروت: الأهلية للنشر والتوزيع، OCLC:858529429، QID:Q107304210)
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100. Ágoston, 2009; Kramers, 1993. (Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire / Ágoston G., Bruce A. M.. — 2009. — P. 364—368, 399—401. — ISSN 0-8160-6259-5.)
101. أوزتونا (2010)، ص. 123. (يلماز أوزتونا (2010)، موسوعة تاريخ الإمبراطوريَّة العُثمانيَّة السياسي والعسكري والحضاري: 629 - 1341هـ / 1231 - 1922م، ترجمة: عدنان محمود سلمان (ط. 1)، بيروت: الدار العربية للموسوعات، ج. 1، QID:Q119025953)
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108. رستم (1956)، ص. 285. (أسد رستم (1956)، الروم في سياستهم وحضارتهم ودينهم وثقافتهم وصلاتهم بالعرب (ط. 1)، بيروت: دار المكشوف، ج. 2، QID:Q112624007)
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111. سرهنك (1895)، ص. 503. (إسماعيل سرهنك (قرابة 1895)، حقائق الأخبار عن دُول البحار (ط. 1)، القاهرة: الهيئة العامة لشؤون المطابع الأميرية، ج. 1، QID:Q119269108)
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180. Hollmann, Joshua (2017). The religious concordance : Nicholas of Cusa and Christian-Muslim dialogue. Leiden. p. 116. ISBN 978-90-04-32677-4. OCLC 965535039. Mehmed's maternal ancestry is shrouded in mystery. Franz Babinger notes that his mother was a 'slave', which ensures that she was not of Turkish origin, and that she probably was of Greek descent (Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time, edited by William C. Hickman and translated by Ralph Manheim, Bollingen Series xcvi (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), 12).
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187. According to sources which consider Hundi and Ümmügülsüm to be two distinct consorts, he was the son of Hundi Hatun.
188. Süreyya, 1 Cild, 1996, p. 5. (Süreyya Mehmed Bey. Sicill-i Osmani (тур.) / ed. Nuri Akbayar. — Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayınlar, 1996. — Т. 1. — S. 15. — ISBN 975-333-049-5, 975-333-038-3.)
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192. According to sources which consider Hundi and Ümmügülsüm to be two distinct consorts, she was the daughter of Ümmügülsüm Hatun.
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