Bayezid I

Early life and background

Bayezid was born to Sultan Murad I and Gülçiçek Hatun, a woman of Greek origin.^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]} Ottoman traditions state that Gülçiçek had previously been the wife of Aclan Bey, a prince of the Anatolian beylik of Karesi, and entered Murad's household after the Ottoman annexation of that principality.^[7] Ottoman narratives trace Bayezid's personal name to the paternal ancestor of his grandmother, Sheikh Edebali, who was known by the kunya Abu Yazid.^[7] Bayezid received education from scholars of his era in religious sciences, mathematics, natural philosophy, and literature, while senior commanders trained him in martial arts and statecraft.^[7][8] The earliest documentary records referencing Bayezid appear in palace stable registers from 1372, recording that Murad requisitioned horses for himself and his sons Bayezid and Yakub for an expedition to Kyustendil, during which both princes married daughters of the local ruler Konstantin Dejanović.^[9]

Bayezid's elder brother Savcı Bey staged a joint rebellion against Murad I alongside the Byzantine prince Andronikos IV Palaeologus in May 1373.^[10][11] The rebel princes took Constantinople in 1376 and deposed Emperor John V Palaeologus, but Murad defeated Savcı in battle on 25 May 1373.^[11] Savcı fled to Dimetoka, where Murad surrounded him, captured him on 7 September 1373, and ordered him blinded; Savcı subsequently died from his injuries or was executed.^[12][13][14] Ottoman records compiled by Feridun Ahmed Bey in the sixteenth-century collection Munsha'at al-Salatin include letters in which Murad asked Bayezid to assess his brothers; Bayezid described Yakub as quiet and calm but warned that Savcı could be led astray by his circle, after which Murad instructed Bayezid to monitor Savcı's movements.^[15]

Bayezid's first prominent political and administrative role occurred around 1381, when an alliance was concluded between Murad I and Süleyman Şah of Germiyan.^[16][17][18] Germiyan faced pressure from the neighboring Karamanids, leading Süleyman to cede substantial territories including Kütahya, Simav, Emet, and Tavşanlı to the Ottomans as the dowry for his daughter Devletşah Hatun's marriage to Bayezid.^{[16][17][18][19][20]} Following the wedding, Murad appointed Bayezid sanjak-bey of Kütahya to secure the eastern borders of the realm while imperial armies campaigned in Rumelia.^[8][16][18] Bayezid was later assigned governance over the Hamid lands around 1386 after that principality was partially sold to the Ottomans, and he also served as governor of Amasya.^[21]

Bayezid commanded the right wing of the Ottoman army in campaigns across both Rumelia and Anatolia.^[21] He earned his epithet Yıldırım, meaning Thunderbolt or Lightning, due to the speed with which he moved troops across regional frontiers.^{[16][22][23][24]} Multiple traditions account for the origin of this nickname. One account connects it to the campaign of 1386 against Alaeddin Ali Bey of Karaman, Murad's son-in-law, in which the speed of Bayezid's troop movements earned him the name.^[22][23][25] Murad I praised Bayezid's swift movements from Sinop to Wallachia and his rapid arrivals in Bursa, directly calling him a lightning bolt.^[22] Other explanations attribute the title to his tactical breakthrough across enemy lines at the Battle of Kosovo, his rapid relief march to the fortress of Nicopolis in 1396, his fiery temperament as recorded by seventeenth-century historians Bostanzade Yahya Efendi and Müneccimbaşı Ahmed Dede, or a Turkish tribal name.^{[26][27][28][29]}

Accession and the execution of Yakub

On 15 June 1389, the Ottoman army engaged a coalition of Serbian, Bosnian, and allied Christian forces on the Kosovo field.^[30][31] Bayezid commanded the right wing, while his brother Yakub commanded the left wing and Murad I directed the center.^[30] When Serbian armored cavalry launched an assault against the Ottoman lines, Bayezid directed a counter-attack that checked their momentum, inflicting casualties on the Serbian forces and capturing Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović alongside several nobles.^[32][33] While inspecting the battlefield, Murad I was mortally stabbed by the Serbian knight Miloš Obilić, who had approached the sultan under the pretense of surrender or was concealed among the wounded.^[34][35] Murad designated Bayezid as his successor before dying.^[36][37]

Bayezid was acclaimed sultan on the battlefield by the viziers and army commanders.^[35][38] Upon securing command, Bayezid ordered his brother Yakub Çelebi strangled with a bowstring inside the imperial tent to eliminate a potential rival for the throne.^{[39][40][41][42]} According to the chronicler Aşıkpaşazade, Yakub was still pursuing retreating enemy cavalry when he was recalled to the royal tent under false pretenses and killed, an act that caused distress among the soldiers.^[39][41][42] Several chroniclers recorded that state dignitaries advised the act to avoid succession civil wars, citing Quranic warnings that discord is worse than slaughter.^[43] Historians noted that Bayezid drew strong backing from converted Christian and Byzantine elements at court due to his maternal heritage, whereas Yakub enjoyed popularity among traditional Turkmen factions.^[44][45] Following Murad's death, Bayezid pardoned the prisoners except Prince Lazar and his nobles, whom he had executed, and ordered his father's body sent to Bursa for burial.^[35][38][46]

Vassalage of Serbia and Balkan security

Bayezid established a diplomatic settlement with Moravian Serbia, which was governed by Prince Lazar's widow, Princess Milica, acting as regent for her young son Stefan Lazarević.^{[47][48][49][50][51]} Milica agreed to Ottoman suzerainty to secure protection against Hungarian incursions from the north and challenges from Vuk Branković in southern Serbia.^[49][52] Under the treaty, Serbia retained domestic autonomy and local customs in exchange for an annual tribute derived from silver extracted at Mount Rudnik and the provision of military auxiliary forces commanded personally by Stefan Lazarević in Ottoman campaigns.^{[44][48][51][53]} The alliance was cemented in 1390 when Bayezid married Milica's youngest daughter, Princess Olivera Despina, who was permitted to retain her Orthodox Christian faith.^{[17][47][51][53]}

Upper Serbia continued to resist under Vuk Branković, who attempted to defend his territory and mining centers.^[35] In 1391 Skopje (Üsküp) came under Ottoman control: one account says Pasha Yiğit Bey bought the city, another that Bayezid conquered it.^[16][35] Bayezid transformed Skopje into a permanent border headquarters and military outpost to oversee operations extending toward Bosnia and Albania. To consolidate Ottoman demographic and logistical control, Bayezid directed large migrations of Turkmen agricultural families into the areas surrounding Skopje and along the Macedonian frontier.^[54]

Bayezid spent the winter of 1389–1390 in Edirne, fortifying its defensive structures, repairing civil infrastructure, and receiving diplomatic delegations.^[54] He received an embassy from the Republic of Venice led by Francesco Querini, formally confirming the continuity of existing commercial treaties and trade privileges granted to Venetian merchants.^[54] Bayezid also dispatched raiders under Hoca Firuz, Lala Şahin, and Pasha Yiğit to raid the borderlands of Vidin, Wallachia, and Bosnia to discourage Christian regional rulers from forming alliances against him while he prepared military campaigns in Anatolia.^[54]

First Anatolian campaigns (1389–1392)

Following Murad I's death, several Anatolian Turkmen beyliks attempted to reclaim territories previously annexed by the Ottomans.^[54][55] Alaeddin Ali Bey of Karaman organized an alliance that included Kadi Burhan al-Din of Sivas, Yakub II of Germiyan, and the emirs of Saruhan, Aydın, Menteşe, Teke, and Hamid.^{[21][54][55][56]} Yakub II retook the lands his father had ceded to Murad, Kadi Burhan al-Din seized Kırşehir, and Alaeddin captured Beyşehir and advanced toward Eskişehir.^[54][55] Before marching east, Bayezid obtained formal legal rulings (fatwas) from Islamic jurists justifying war against fellow Muslim rulers who disrupted regional stability and allied against warriors of the faith.^[57][58] Bayezid relied on Christian vassal contingents, including Serbian heavy cavalry under Stefan Lazarević and Byzantine forces led by Manuel II Palaeologus, to conduct these sieges, doubting the loyalty of his Turkmen troops against their kin.^{[35][54][57][58]}

In a rapid campaign during 1390, Bayezid entered western Anatolia, annexing the beyliks of Aydın, Saruhan, and Menteşe.^{[58][59][60][61]} The emirs of Saruhan and Menteşe fled to seek refuge in Kastamonu with Süleyman Bey of Candar, while Isa Bey of Aydın surrendered his principality and was permitted to reside peacefully in Tire.^[60] Bayezid subsequently incorporated the remaining principalities of Hamid, Teke, and Germiyan, capturing Yakub II of Germiyan and imprisoning him in İpsala.^{[59][60][62][63]} These conquests granted the Ottoman state access to the Aegean Sea and absorbed Saruhan's naval fleet.^[21][64] The nascent Ottoman fleet immediately raided Chios, assaulted the Attic coast, and initiated a maritime trade blockade across Aegean islands.^[64][65]

Bayezid took Philadelphia (Alaşehir), the last independent Greek Christian settlement in western Asia Minor, in 1390 or 1391.^[61][66][67] Philadelphia had resisted Ottoman control since 1378, functioning autonomously after its citizens refused to surrender pursuant to earlier agreements made by John V Palaeologus.^[66] Bayezid summoned his Byzantine vassals, co-emperors John VII and Manuel II, ordering their contingents to participate directly in besieging and reducing the Greek Christian city, which was subsequently renamed Alaşehir.^[61][66][67]

In autumn 1390, Bayezid marched into central Anatolia, retook Beyşehir, captured Akşehir and Niğde, and besieged the Karamanid capital of Konya.^{[58][59][61][68]} Alaeddin fled to the Taşeli highlands in Cilicia.^[65] Süleyman Bey of Candar, previously Bayezid's ally, turned against him and allied with Kadi Burhan al-Din, and they offered to aid the Karamanid ruler.^{[61][65][69][70]} In response to this northern threat and intercession by his sister Nefise Melek Hatun (Alaeddin's wife), Bayezid concluded peace with Karaman in 1391, establishing the Çarşamba River as the frontier and retaining Beyşehir, Konya, and surrounding districts.^{[59][65][69][70][71]}

Bayezid moved against the Candaroğulları principality in Kastamonu, which sheltered displaced Turkmen dynasts.^[59][65] Bayezid annexed Kastamonu and killed Süleyman Bey in June 1391 according to one account.^[72] Another places his march on Kastamonu in spring 1392.^[73] A Venetian report of 6 April 1392 states that Manuel II Palaeologus joined an Ottoman naval expedition against the Candarids.^[61][74] Süleyman's brother İsfendiyar Bey retained Sinop by agreeing to vassal status.^[61][75] Bayezid advanced eastward to seize Osmancık from Kadi Burhan al-Din.^[72][73][76] Burhan al-Din fought an Ottoman army commanded by Bayezid's son Prince Ertuğrul Çelebi at Kırkdilim near Çorum on 20 July 1391 or 1392 and drove it back.^{[59][73][75][76][77]} Burhan al-Din raided toward Ankara and Sivrihisar, but when he besieged Amasya in 1392, its ruler Ahmed bin Shadgeldi surrendered the city to Bayezid.^[76][78] According to the German traveller Johann Schiltberger, Bayezid sent his son Mehmed with an army of 30,000, which drove Burhan al-Din out of the region, and the territory was given to Mehmed. The minor lords of the region joined Bayezid and recognized his sovereignty.^[62][78]

First siege of Constantinople and the assembly at Serres

Bayezid intervened directly in Byzantine succession disputes to weaken imperial resistance.^[79][80] In April 1390, he provided military support to John VII Palaeologus, helping him overthrow his grandfather John V and uncle Manuel II.^[79] John V and Manuel barricaded themselves inside the Golden Gate fortress while John VII held the city.^[79] Manuel escaped by sea to assemble a naval relief force, driving John VII from the throne in September 1390.^[80][81] John VII fled to Bayezid, who granted him Selymbria as a fief.^[67] John V and Manuel II were forced to renew their vassalage to Bayezid, increasing annual tribute and providing military service.^[67][80][81]

While Manuel was accompanying Ottoman campaigns in Anatolia, John V repaired and reinforced the Golden Gate towers using masonry stripped from ruined Christian churches.^[82][83] Bayezid ordered the fortifications demolished, threatening to blind Manuel if the work was not undone.^[82][83] John V complied, but fell ill and died on 16 February 1391.^[79][83] Manuel escaped from Bursa without Bayezid's permission to claim the imperial throne in Constantinople.^[79][80][83] In response, Bayezid demanded the establishment of a dedicated Muslim residential quarter containing 700 houses, the construction of a congregational mosque, the installation of a cadi to administer Islamic law, and an increase in tribute.^{[65][80][83][84]} When Manuel refused, Ottoman troops initiated a land blockade and naval encirclement of Constantinople in 1391 that lasted seven months.^[65][83] Manuel accepted Ottoman terms to secure a lifting of the siege, granting a designated Muslim quarter and legal courts within the capital.^[83][84]

In the winter of 1393–1394, Bayezid summoned his major Christian vassals to a general assembly at Serres in Macedonia.^[85][86] Attendees included Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus, Theodore I Palaeologus (Despot of the Morea), Prince Stefan Lazarević of Serbia, Konstantin Dejanović, Vuk Branković, and Paul Mamonas, the lord of Monemvasia.^[85][86] At the assembly, Mamonas accused Theodore I of infringing upon his feudal autonomy. After Theodore I began attacking Ottoman vassals in late 1393, Bayezid, angered by the rebellious acts of the Palaeologus brothers, intended to punish them.^[86] While the vassals were eventually permitted to depart, Theodore was detained until he promised to cede strategic fortresses including Monemvasia and Argos. Theodore agreed, but upon his release he fled to the Peloponnese and allied with the Republic of Venice, transferring Argos to Venetian protection. Manuel II broke ties with the Ottoman court, resolving not to submit to further summons.^[86]

After spring 1394, Ottoman forces led by Evrenos Bey campaigned in the Peloponnese.^[87] Ottoman forces took Larissa, Pharsala, Domokos, and the Frankish Duchy of Salona (Amphissa), ending Latin rule in Central Greece and driving into the Morea.^[75][88] In spring 1394, Bayezid initiated a comprehensive blockade of Constantinople.^[85][89][90] To close the Bosphorus to maritime commerce and intercept relief vessels, Bayezid constructed the fortress of Anadoluhisarı (originally named Güzelce Hisar) between 1393 and 1394 on the Asian bank of the strait, approximately eight kilometers north of the city walls.^{[18][89][91][92]}

Balkan expansion and the fall of Bulgaria

After subjugating Serbia, Bayezid turned against the Tsardom of Tarnovo.^[93][94] While the northern border along the Danube remained contested, Tsar Ivan Shishman governed from Tarnovo and his brother Ivan Sratsimir ruled the semi-independent Tsardom of Vidin under nominal Ottoman vassalage.^[94][95] In 1393, encouraged by King Sigismund of Hungary, Ivan Shishman entered into negotiations with Hungarian representatives and expelled Ottoman garrisons along the Danube.^[94][95][96] Leaving his Anatolian forces, Bayezid marched across Rumelia and laid siege to Tarnovo in spring 1393.^[75][94] The Bulgarian capital held out for three months under the leadership of Patriarch Euthymius before falling to an Ottoman assault on 17 July 1393.^[75][94][97] Patriarch Euthymius was taken prisoner.^[75] Bulgaria became the first Ottoman province in Europe, and only Ivan Sratsimir at Vidin remained an Ottoman vassal.^[94]

Ivan Shishman kept part of his former lands, ruling them from the Danubian fortress of Nicopolis.^[93] In Wallachia, Voivode Mircea the Elder challenged Ottoman influence by crossing the Danube in 1391 and raiding Karnobat, Silistra, and Dobruja.^[98] In summer 1391, Bayezid crossed the Danube to confront Mircea, capturing him and holding him briefly in Bursa until a release was negotiated for a ransom of 3,000 ducats, thirty horses, and twenty hunting falcons, alongside an agreement to pay annual tribute.^[98]

Tensions escalated again when Mircea renewed his alliance with Hungary and received military aid from Sigismund.^[95][96] In spring 1395, Bayezid led an army of 40,000 soldiers across the Danube into Wallachia.^[98] Mircea confronted the Ottomans on 17 May 1395 (or 10 October 1394) at the Battle of Rovine, fighting on swampy, heavily forested terrain.^{[98][99][100]} Ottoman vassal lords fought in Bayezid's ranks, including Prince Stefan Lazarević, Prince Marko Mrnjavčević, and Konstantin Dejanović; Marko and Konstantin were killed in the fighting.^[100][101] Accounts of the battle differ, with one saying the Ottomans prevailed and another that the Wallachians drove them back across the Danube.^[101][102] The Ottomans replaced Mircea with their vassal Vlad, who was soon removed by the Hungarians.^[95][101]

Returning southward from Wallachia, Bayezid advanced on Nicopolis, where he arrested Ivan Shishman for complicity with Wallachia and Hungary.^[82][101] Bayezid ordered Ivan Shishman executed on 3 June 1395.^[94][101] His son Alexander converted to Islam, adopted the name İskender, and was appointed Ottoman governor of Samsun in Anatolia.^[82][103] With Shishman's execution, the Tarnovo Tsardom was extinguished, leaving only Ivan Sratsimir's realm at Vidin as the last surviving Christian state in Bulgaria.^[94]

Crusade of Nicopolis (1396)

The Ottoman expansion to the Danube prompted King Sigismund of Hungary to organize a European coalition to expel the Turks from the Balkans.^{[89][104][105][106]} Pope Boniface IX proclaimed a crusade, supported by Western rulers despite the Western Schism.^[104] Sigismund was joined by a French and Burgundian army commanded by John of Nevers (heir to the Duchy of Burgundy) and Marshal Jean II Le Maingre (Boucicault), comprising nobles, knights, and cavalry.^{[92][104][107][108]} Auxiliary contingents joined from the Holy Roman Empire, England, Scotland, Flanders, Lombardy, Venice, Genoa, the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, Wallachia under Mircea the Elder, and the Kingdom of Bohemia.^{[104][106][107][108]} The crusader army, about 30,000 to 35,000 men according to one account, assembled at Buda in early summer 1396.^[108] Another account gives a crusader army of 130,000 men, 60,000 of them Hungarian..^[106][109]

The crusader forces advanced down the Danube and took Vidin.^[109] The Vidin tsar Ivan Sratsimir joined the allied army..^[110] The crusaders took Rahova, where its Muslim inhabitants were massacred..^[109] The crusaders arrived at the fortress of Nicopolis in September 1396 and laid siege to it.^[108][111] The fortress commander, Doğan Bey, refused demands to surrender and maintained the defense while awaiting relief.^[109] Bayezid, who was besieging Constantinople, gathered his forces from Rumelia and Anatolia, joined with Stefan Lazarević's Serbian auxiliary cavalry at the Shipka Pass, and reached the outskirts of Nicopolis.^[104][109] Bayezid conducted a nighttime ride to the base of the fortress walls, speaking with Doğan Bey to evaluate supplies and defenses.^[104][106]

On 25 September 1396, the two armies met in battle.^{[89][108][111]} Disregarding Sigismund's advice to hold a defensive posture, the French and Burgundian knights charged the Ottoman vanguard.^[108][111] Upon cresting the ridge, the crusader cavalry was encircled by Ottoman reserve lines and sipahi cavalry.^[111] The rout of the French spread through the whole crusader army, and some commanders began to withdraw from the field..^[104] Stefan Lazarević led a flank charge with Serbian heavy cavalry against Sigismund's Hungarian divisions, deciding the battle in favor of the Ottomans.^[18][112] Sigismund and Philibert de Naillac escaped to a boat on the Danube, while thousands of crusaders drowned attempting to reach allied vessels.^[104][106]

The Ottomans took thousands of captives, including John of Nevers, Marshal Boucicaut, and other French nobles.^{[78][104][113]} Enraged by the many Muslims the crusaders had killed at the walls of Nicopolis before the battle, and by his army's losses, Bayezid ordered the execution of his crusader prisoners..^[111][113] Between 3,000 and 10,000 captives were executed before Ottoman commanders persuaded the sultan to halt the killings.^[78][111] Captives under twenty years of age, including the German traveler Johann Schiltberger, were spared from execution and assigned to military service.^[78] Prominent nobles were released after the collection of a ransom totaling 200,000 gold ducats.^{[106][113][114]} According to one account, when Bayezid released John of Nevers, who had sworn never to fight the Muslims again, he freed him from the oath and said that nothing pleased him more than fighting and defeating all the Christians of Europe.^[114] Bayezid also mockingly invited the ransomed knights to come back and fight his army again..^{[106][113][114]}

Following the victory at Nicopolis, Bayezid annexed Vidin, deposing and exiling Ivan Sratsimir to Anatolia and ending the medieval Bulgarian tsardom.^[61][110] Ottoman troops conducted incursions into southern Hungary, Syrmia, and Styria.^[92] The Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil I, who lived in Cairo, gave Bayezid the title Sultan-i İklim-i Rûm (Sultan of the Land of Rum), which gave his rule legitimacy.^{[115][116][117][118]} Bayezid presented his title of Sultan of Rum as proof that he had inherited the rule of the Seljuks..^[118] Bayezid returned to Bursa and used the captured spoils to construct the Ulu Cami (Great Mosque of Bursa); according to traditional accounts, he had vowed to build twenty mosques if he won and fulfilled the vow with a single building covered by twenty domes.^{[22][89][119]}

Renewed actions against Constantinople and in Greece

Following his victory at Nicopolis, Bayezid moved against the Despotate of the Morea to punish Theodore I Palaeologus for assisting the crusaders.^[120][121] In 1397, Ottoman divisions commanded by Evrenos Bey and Yakub Pasha assaulted the Peloponnese.^[87][120] On 2 June 1397, Ottoman troops stormed and plundered Argos.^[120] Bayezid besieged Corinth and fought Theodore at Leontarion on 21 June 1397 but could not subdue him.^[120] After Venice refused to help, Theodore turned to the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes and ceded the despotate to them in return for their help, keeping the right to buy it back..^[120] Bayezid relocated approximately 30,000 Greek residents from conquered districts of the Morea to Asia Minor, establishing settlements of Turkish colonists in their place.^[120][122]

Bayezid renewed the siege and blockade of Constantinople, demanding the surrender of the city after Manuel II failed to implement earlier agreements regarding Muslim legal courts and mosques.^{[91][123][124]} In response, Charles VI of France dispatched an expeditionary force of 1,200 soldiers commanded by Marshal Boucicaut in summer 1399.^[124][125] Boucicaut's forces conducted raids into Ottoman-held Bithynia, attacking İzmit (Nicomedia).^[124][125] Recognizing that military supplies and finances remained insufficient, Boucicaut reconciled Manuel II with John VII, leaving John VII as regent in Constantinople while Manuel departed in December 1399 to tour European courts to request assistance.^[124][125]

The blockade persisted under John VII's regency.^[124] Faced with famine within the city, John VII negotiated an accommodation with Bayezid around 1401.^{[124][126][127]} Under the agreement, the Byzantine administration agreed to pay an annual tribute of 10,000 gold pieces, ceded Selymbria and territories outside the city walls, confirmed the establishment of an Islamic court with an appointed cadi, and allocated designated residential neighborhoods and mosques for Muslim merchants.^[126][127] The Ottoman blockade was lifted in 1402 when Bayezid was forced to transfer his field army to Anatolia to counter the invasion of Timur.^{[89][126][128]}

Second Anatolian campaign and annexation of Karaman

While Bayezid was campaigning in the Balkans, Alaeddin Ali Bey of Karaman violated their peace agreement.^[71][129] Alaeddin mobilized Turkmen tribal forces, captured Ankara, and took the Ottoman provincial governor, Sarı Timurtaş Pasha, prisoner.^[71][129] Bayezid marched his army to Anatolia in autumn 1397.^[129] Alaeddin released Timurtaş Pasha and sent an embassy with peace offerings, but Bayezid refused negotiations.^[129] Some accounts place the battle at Akçay and record a Karamanid defeat.^[71][130] According to Johann Schiltberger, the armies met near Konya, where Bayezid could not defeat Alaeddin in a two-day battle, and Alaeddin, nearly surrounded, took refuge in the city's citadel..^[129] After an eleven-day siege, the townspeople surrendered the gates and handed Alaeddin over to the Ottomans.^[129] Alaeddin was executed by decapitation, and Bayezid annexed Konya, Karaman (Larende), Aksaray, and Develi Karahisar into the Ottoman state.^{[71][129][131][132]} Bayezid sent his sister Nefise Melek Hatun and her sons Mehmed and Ali to reside in Bursa, assigning the governance of the Karamanid lands to his son Prince Mustafa.^[133]

Bayezid then eliminated the remaining autonomous Turkmen rulers in northern Anatolia.^[134] When Bayezid Bey of Kastamonu refused to surrender dynastic refugees, the sultan seized Samsun and Osmaniye, while Bayezid of Kastamonu fled to Timur's court.^[134] Kadi Burhan al-Din lost a battle to Kara Yülük Osman Bey, ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu, was captured, and was killed by the Aq Qoyunlu.^[135] According to the Ottoman chronicler Saadeddin, Kara Osman captured him in the Harput mountains, where he had hidden from Bayezid.^[136] Kara Osman besieged Sivas and publicly executed Burhan al-Din after his son Zeynel refused to surrender the city.^[137] According to Schiltberger and Ibn Arabshah, the execution took place in July or August 1398, though sources give other dates..^{[135][136][137][138]} Kadi Burhan al-Din's son, Zeynel, and the local elite invited Ottoman intervention to protect the city against the Aq Qoyunlu.^{[135][137][138]} Bayezid incorporated Sivas, Tokat, and Kayseri, placing Prince Süleyman Çelebi in charge of the regional administration with an army of 40,000.^{[135][138][139]}

In summer 1399, Bayezid advanced into the upper Euphrates valley and took control of Malatya, Darende, and Divriği from the Mamluk Sultanate, taking advantage of the instability following the death of Mamluk Sultan Barquq.^[140][141] Ottoman forces entered the territory of the Dulkadirids and occupied Elbistan, Behisni, and Kahta, establishing direct Ottoman control up to the Euphrates.^[140] This expansion created diplomatic tensions with Barquq's successor, Sultan Faraj, and severed prospects for an Ottoman-Mamluk defensive coalition against Timur.^[141][142]

Confrontation with Timur

The eastward expansion of the Ottoman Empire brought Bayezid into direct contact with the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur, who had established an empire stretching across Central Asia, Iran, Azerbaijan, and Iraq.^[143][144] Their rivalry was exacerbated by the treatment of displaced regional rulers.^[128][145] The dispossessed Turkmen emirs of Aydın, Saruhan, Germiyan, Menteşe, and Karaman took refuge at Timur's court, urging him to invade Anatolia to restore their realms.^{[128][146][147]} Concurrently, Timur's political enemies, Ahmad Jalayir of Baghdad and Qara Yusuf of the Qara Qoyunlu, sought sanctuary with Bayezid, who granted Kütahya to Ahmad and Akşehir to Qara Yusuf.^[144][145] Timur demanded that Bayezid extradite Ahmad and Qara Yusuf, return annexed lands to the Anatolian beys, restore Erzincan to his vassal Taherten, and acknowledge Timurid suzerainty; Bayezid rejected these demands.^{[128][144][145][148][149]}

Four letters from Timur and four replies from Bayezid are known.^[150] Bayezid answered Timur's first letter sharply and rudely, though his second and third letters were more restrained.^[151] The two rulers then began exchanging letters full of mutual insults, each trying to provoke the other..^{[152][153][154]} Timur ridiculed the origins and lineage of the Ottoman house, describing Bayezid as an ant challenging an elephant, while referring to him in court letters as the Caesar of Rum, an appellation typically reserved for non-Muslim sovereigns.^[153][155] Bayezid replied with invective, challenging Timur to battle, questioning his courage, and stating that if he retreated from combat, his wives would be thrice divorced.^[128][156] European powers, including France, Genoa, Castile, and the Byzantine Empire, maintained diplomatic communications with Timur to encourage an assault against the Ottomans.^{[152][157][158]}

In August 1400, Timur crossed into eastern Anatolia and besieged Sivas, which was defended by an Ottoman garrison of 4,000 men under Prince Süleyman and Prince Ertuğrul.^[128][159] Sivas fell after eighteen days on 26 August 1400.^[159] Timur razed the city fortifications, executed the military defenders, and killed Prince Ertuğrul Çelebi.^[159][160] Timur then moved south into Mamluk Syria, sacking Aleppo and Damascus, before capturing Baghdad.^[128][161] While Timur was in Syria, Bayezid invaded eastern Anatolia in 1401, capturing Erzincan and the fortress of Kemah from Taherten and taking his family captive.^[162] In autumn 1401, Timur's army returned to the borders of Asia Minor and wintered in Karabakh.^[128][152] Timur demanded that Bayezid hand over the fortress of Kemah, which he regarded as the property of his vassal Taherten..^[148]

Battle of Ankara (1402)

In spring 1402, Timur retook Kemah and marched toward Sivas.^[163] Bayezid abandoned the siege of Constantinople, concentrated his European and Asian contingents at Bursa, and marched eastward to Tokat.^[164] Bayezid planned to meet the Timurids in the wooded hills around Sivas to limit the effectiveness of Timur's cavalry.^[164] Timur outmaneuvered the Ottoman force by moving southwest along the Kızılırmak River through Kayseri and Kırşehir, marching directly toward Ankara.^{[165][166][167]} Timur's advance guard invested Ankara and established camp on ground previously occupied by Ottoman forces.^[167] To disrupt the Ottoman position, Timur's troops constructed an embankment that diverted the Çubuk stream and destroyed or poisoned the surrounding wells, cutting off the local water supply.^[168][169]

When Bayezid discovered that the Timurid army was positioned behind him at Ankara, he turned his army back across the Kızılırmak in a forced march lasting eight days under the summer heat.^[170] The Ottoman troops arrived on the plains of Çubuk parched, fatigued, and lacking access to drinking water.^{[128][169][170]} Timur's army numbered approximately 140,000 men, predominantly cavalry, and deployed 32 armored war elephants in the vanguard.^[171] The Ottoman army numbered between 70,000 and 85,000 men according to modern estimates (or 120,000 to 160,000 in early chronicles), comprising Janissaries, sipahis, Balkan vassal contingents including 5,000 Serbian heavy cavalry under Stefan Lazarević and Đurađ Branković, Albanian auxiliaries, and levies from the Anatolian beyliks and nomadic Black Tatars.^[128][171]

The armies engaged on the Çubuk plain on 20 or 28 July 1402.^{[171][172][173]} Timur had communicated secretly with the Black Tatars and Anatolian Turkmen contingents serving in the Ottoman ranks.^[164][174] When battle commenced, the Turkmen troops from Aydın, Saruhan, Germiyan, and Menteşe saw their former dynastic lords fighting on Timur's side and defected.^[159][169] The Black Tatars, stationed on the flanks, turned on the Ottoman lines, compromising the Ottoman formation.^[159][169] The Janissaries and the Serbian troops were the only forces that held their ground with Bayezid..^[160][175]

Recognizing that the battle was lost, Grand Vizier Çandarlı Ali Pasha, Janissary Agha Murad Pasha, and senior commanders urged a tactical withdrawal to preserve the dynasty, escorting Bayezid's eldest son, Prince Süleyman Çelebi, from the field toward Bursa.^[160][175] Prince Mehmed was taken to Amasya by the emirs of that city, while Isa escaped with his troops.^[175] Stefan Lazarević advised Bayezid to flee, but when the sultan refused, the Serbian cavalry covered Süleyman's retreat.^[175] Surrounded by his Janissaries, Bayezid refused to leave the battlefield.^[175] The fighting went on until sunset, and a Janissary division of about 10,000 soldiers held firm with him..^[160][176] When Bayezid attempted to break through the encirclement at dusk, his horse fell, and he was surrounded and captured by Timurid troops alongside his son Musa Çelebi.^[160][169] Prince Mustafa Çelebi was also captured and transported to Central Asia.^[177][178]

Captivity: legends and historical accounts

Following the battle, Bayezid was brought before Timur.^{[169][179][180]} Later historical accounts reported that Timur laughed upon seeing the sultan; when Bayezid protested that it was indecent to laugh at misfortune, Timur replied that power held little value if God distributed vast empires to cripples such as Bayezid, who was cross-eyed or blind in one eye, and himself, who was lame.^[181][182] Early European and Ottoman narratives developed accounts of Bayezid suffering mistreatment in captivity.^{[183][184][185][186]} These accounts claimed that Bayezid was locked in an iron cage, bound in chains, used by Timur as a footstool to mount his horse, placed under the banquet table where food scraps were tossed to him, and forced to watch his wife Olivera Despina serve wine to Timur and his guests unclothed or stripped to the navel.^{[180][183][184][185][186][187][188]}

Modern historiographical analysis identifies the iron cage narrative as a misinterpretation of an enclosed carriage.^[189][190] After Bayezid attempted to escape on three occasions, Timur had him transported in an enclosed litter with barred windows known in Turkish as a takhtrawan or kafes, suspended between two horses, to prevent further flight while marching across Anatolia.^{[189][191][192]} The Ottoman historian Mehmed Neshri popularized the cage story by claiming that when Timur asked Bayezid how he would have treated him had the roles been reversed, Bayezid replied that he would have placed him in an iron cage, prompting Timur to order one constructed.^[193][194] The full set of these legends may first appear in Pope Pius II's Asiae Europaeque elegantissima descriptio, written in 1450 to 1460 and published in 1509, and later authors such as Theodore Spandounes developed them further.

Contemporary eyewitnesses who were present in the region did not record physical abuse or a metal cage.^{[190][195][196]} The German traveler Johann Schiltberger, who was captured at Nicopolis and served in Bayezid's and subsequently Timur's retinue, mentioned neither an iron cage nor physical torture.^{[190][195][196]} Marshal Boucicaut, who had been ransomed following Nicopolis and maintained contacts in the Levant, omitted mention of an iron cage.^[195][196] Ruy González de Clavijo, the Castilian ambassador who traveled to Timur's court in Samarkand in 1404 and visited Constantinople on his return journey, made no reference to cage confinement.^[195][196] Greek chronicles from the first decade of the fifteenth century are similarly silent regarding the legend.^[195][196]

Timurid court records, particularly the Zafarnama by Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi, state that Bayezid was treated with dignity appropriate to an imperial monarch.^{[177][197][198][199]} Yazdi recorded that Timur seated Bayezid beside him, provided three ceremonial tents for his entourage, and assigned his personal physicians to attend to the sultan's declining health.^{[189][198][200][201]} At Bayezid's request, Timur's officers located his captured son Musa and reunited them.^[197][199] Yazdi also recorded that Olivera Despina and her daughters were sent to join Bayezid, stating that Timur intended to re-establish Bayezid as ruler of Rum under Timurid suzerainty once Anatolia had been reorganized.^{[198][199][202][203]} Literary historians such as H.A.R. Gibb note that early references to a cage in the Arabic writings of Ibn Arabshah reflected a rhymed, metaphorical prose style describing Bayezid as locked like a bird in a cage, which later chroniclers misinterpreted literally.^{[204][205][206][207]}

Death, burial, and the Ottoman Interregnum

While held at Akşehir near Konya, Bayezid's health deteriorated rapidly, leaving him unable to stand.^[200] Timur canceled plans to transport him to Central Asia and summoned physicians to treat him.^[200][208] Bayezid died at Akşehir in March 1403.^{[200][203][209]} Sharaf al-Din Ali Yazdi recorded the date of death as Thursday, 14 Sha'ban 805 AH (9 March 1403, or 17 March in alternate conversions), attributing his death to respiratory failure, high blood pressure, and inflammation of the throat.^{[200][203][210]} Greek chronicles and late Ottoman accounts proposed alternate causes of death, including apoplexy, fever, or suicide through ingesting poison concealed within his signet ring or striking his head against the bars of his carriage.^{[200][211][212][213]} A version in which Bayezid was poisoned on Timur's orders is considered unlikely, because there is evidence that Timur entrusted the care of the sick Bayezid to his personal doctors.^{[119][201][211]}

According to Timurid court historians, Timur mourned Bayezid's death; he ordered his provisional burial in the mausoleum complex of the Sufi mystic Seyyid Mahmud Hayrani in Akşehir.^{[35][177][214][215]} Timur released Prince Musa Çelebi from captivity, investing him with robes of honor and authorizing him to convey his father's body to Bursa.^{[35][214][215]} Accounts diverge regarding the transfer: one tradition states that Musa transported the remains directly to Bursa for burial beside the Bayezid I Mosque; another records that Musa conveyed the embalmed body to Yakub II of Germiyan in Kütahya, where it was preserved until Prince Mehmed Çelebi transferred it to Bursa in 1404.^[35][214] In 1414, during the Ottoman civil wars, Mehmed Bey of Karaman invaded the Ottoman lands, giving revenge for his father Alaeddin's execution as his reason, captured Bursa after a 34-day siege, opened Bayezid's tomb, and burned his remains.^[216][217]

Following the Battle of Ankara, Timur advanced through western Anatolia, plundering Bursa and İznik, burning imperial archives, taking Smyrna from the Knights Hospitaller, and transferring its territory to the reinstated beylik of Aydın.^[218] Timur re-established the pre-existing Anatolian Turkmen beyliks, restoring independence to Karaman, Germiyan, Candar, Saruhan, Aydın, and Menteşe.^{[169][179][219]} Timur divided the remaining Ottoman lands among Bayezid's surviving sons: Süleyman Çelebi governed Rumelia from Edirne, Isa Çelebi held western Anatolia from Bursa, and Mehmed Çelebi ruled north-central Anatolia from Amasya.^[169][219]

The territorial partition initiated the eleven-year civil war known as the Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413).^{[169][175][179][220]} Süleyman concluded an alliance with Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus, ceding Thessalonica and Aegean coastal strips to the Byzantines to secure his European position.^[221] Mehmed defeated and killed Isa in Anatolia, subsequently dispatching Musa across the straits to challenge Süleyman in Rumelia.^[221] Musa defeated and killed Süleyman outside Edirne on 17 February 1411.^[222] Musa then turned against his brother and laid siege to Constantinople, prompting Manuel II to ally with Mehmed.^[221] Mehmed crossed into Europe with Byzantine and Serbian support, defeated Musa at the Battle of Çamurlu in 1413, and had him executed, reuniting the remaining Ottoman territories as Sultan Mehmed I.^[220][221]

Administration, military reforms, and culture

During Bayezid's reign, the Ottoman state expanded from roughly 500,000 square kilometers to 942,000 square kilometers across Europe and Anatolia, although German and Latin estimates place the realm at 690,000 square kilometers.^{[106][200][223][224]} Bayezid transformed the frontier principality (uc beyliği) into a centralized bureaucratic empire.^[209][225] He ordered land and property registers compiled, implemented fiscal regulations adapted from Ilkhanid administrative practices, and expanded the allocation of public and financial offices to members of the royal household and court slaves (ghilman) rather than autonomous frontier lords.^[225] To encourage maritime trade and internal revenue, Bayezid granted commercial privileges to the maritime republics of Venice, Genoa, and Ragusa, although Venice severed relations following the Battle of Ankara.^{[54][223][224][225]}

Bayezid institutionalized the devshirme levy to staff the Janissary corps and imperial administration.^{[225][226][227]} While earlier sultans recruited Janissaries via the pencik system (claiming one-fifth of wartime captives), the earliest documented imposition of the devshirme—the systematic levy of Christian youth from subject Balkan populations—dates to 1395, during Bayezid's reign.^{[226][227][228][229][230]} Under Bayezid, the standing Janissary corps expanded from approximately 1,000 to 5,000 soldiers.^[231] To resolve confusion arising from the growth of the army, Beylerbey Timurtaş Pasha instituted standardized dress codes: white felt turbans were reserved for the sultan's sipahis and high court attendants, while round red headgear was assigned to palace retainers and minor officials.^[232]

Bayezid maintained diplomatic, military, and theological exchanges with Christian rulers.^[233] In the winter of 1391, while encamped at Ankara during operations against Kadi Burhan al-Din, Bayezid was accompanied by Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus.^[233] Bayezid and Manuel lodged at the home of a respected Muslim scholar who had relocated from Baghdad to Anatolia.^[233] Over several sessions conducted in Arabic and Persian, Manuel II, Bayezid, the scholar, and his two sons engaged in theological dialogues covering Christian and Islamic perspectives on God, the Quran and Biblical prophecy, the Christian Trinity and Islamic monotheism, the nature of faith, and metaphysics.^[233] Manuel subsequently documented these discussions in his Dialogues with an Empress on the Christian Religion.^[233]

Bayezid expanded imperial architecture, constructing congregational mosques, defensive fortresses, and civil infrastructure.^[119][223] In Bursa, he constructed the Bayezid I Mosque and complex (külliye) between 1391 and 1395, featuring an adjoining madrasa, hospital, public kitchen, and baths.^[119][223] His architectural monument was the Ulu Cami in Bursa, a rectangular hypostyle structure measuring approximately 4,000 square meters covered by twenty domes arranged in four rows of five.^[22][119] Bayezid fortified the Dardanelles by reconstructing and expanding the naval facilities, shipyard, and harbor walls at Gallipoli.^[223][224]

Personal life and family

Ottoman chroniclers described Bayezid as possessing a round face, fair skin with a reddish-bronze complexion, hazel or blue-green eyes, auburn or blondish hair, a prominent aquiline nose, thick eyebrows, a full beard, broad shoulders, and a robust physique.^[119][234] Several Byzantine and Western sources described him as being cross-eyed or blind in one eye.^[235] Bayezid was characterized by personal impulsiveness, unpredictability, and impatience, contrasting with the calculated statecraft of his father Murad.^{[64][236][237][238][239]} He delegated civil administration to his viziers and provincial governors, concentrating his attention on military campaigns.^{[236][238][240][241]} He maintained a large imperial hunting retinue, hunting on Mount Uludağ, and wrestled alongside his soldiers.^[119] Bayezid composed vernacular poetry in Turkish under the pen name Yıldırım, making him the earliest Ottoman sultan recorded to have adopted a poetic pseudonym.^[119]

Bayezid's religious life combined personal devotion with departures from the ascetic lifestyles of his predecessors.^{[240][242][243]} He spent periods in prayer at his personal mosque in Bursa, consulted Islamic scholars, and maintained ties to the Zayniyya Sufi order.^{[119][240][242][244]} His son-in-law, Seyyid Şemseddin Mehmed Buhari (Emir Sultan), was a prominent Sufi figure in Bursa.^[119] By some accounts, Bayezid was the first Ottoman ruler to wear gold-embroidered velvet and fur robes (sraser) and to dine from gold and silver vessels, and the first member of the Ottoman royal family to drink wine.^[119][243] Contemporary and subsequent Ottoman historians attributed his consumption of alcohol to the influence of his Christian wife, Olivera Despina.^{[245][246][247]} Chroniclers recorded that when Bayezid invited Emir Sultan to inspect the newly completed Ulu Cami, the sheikh remarked that the mosque lacked only a tavern at each corner, chastising the sultan for turning his own body into a tavern while revering a physical house of God.^[248]

Bayezid had at least ten wives and consorts.^{[249][250][251]} In 1372, he married Fülane Hatun, a daughter of Konstantin Dejanović of Kyustendil.^{[249][251][252][253]} In 1378, he married Devletşah Hatun (died 1414), daughter of Süleyman Şah of Germiyan and Mutahhare Abide Hatun (a granddaughter of Rumi), who was the mother of İsa Çelebi and Musa Çelebi.^{[245][249][251][253][254][255]} In 1386, he married a daughter of Emperor John V Palaeologus and Helena Kantakouzene.^{[249][251][253][256]} Devlet Hatun (died 1422), a slave concubine probably of non-Turkish origin, was the mother of Sultan Mehmed I.^{[245][249][251][253][255]} In 1390, he married Princess Olivera Despina (1372–1444), daughter of Prince Lazar of Serbia and Princess Milica; she became his favored consort, was captured alongside him at Ankara, and returned to Serbia in 1403 after his death.^{[245][249][250][251][253][257][258]} Also in 1390, he married Hafsa Hatun, daughter of Fahreddin Isa Bey of Aydın.^{[245][249][250][251][253][259]} In 1394, Maria Fadrique (1370–1394), Countess of Salona and daughter of Louis Fadrique and Helena Asanina Kantakouzene, entered his harem and died or was executed that year.^{[249][250][251][253][260][261]} Other wives included Angelina Hatun, daughter of a Hungarian count named János, who was freed by Timur, handed over to Henry III of Castile and later married Diego González de Contreras, and her sister Maria Hatun, who was also freed by Timur and later married Payo González de Soto Mayor.^[262][263] Other accounts describe Angelina as a Greek woman and Maria as the daughter of a Hungarian prince who married Payo Gómez de Soto Mayor..^{[253][264][265][266]}

Bayezid fathered at least twelve sons: Prince Ertuğrul Çelebi (1376–1400), governor of Aydın and later Sivas, who was killed during Timur's siege of Sivas; Prince Süleyman Çelebi (1377–1411), ruler in Rumelia during the Interregnum; Prince İsa Çelebi (1380–1403), governor in Anatolia, killed during the civil war; Prince Mustafa Çelebi (1380–1402 or 1422), captured by Timur and later an imperial claimant under Mehmed I and Murad II; Prince Musa Çelebi (died 1413), ruler in Rumelia, executed by Mehmed I; Mehmed I (1386–1421), who reunited the empire; Prince Yusuf Çelebi (1390–1417), sent as a hostage to Constantinople where he converted to Christianity and took the name Demetrios; Prince Kasım Çelebi, also sent as a hostage to Constantinople; Prince Hasan Çelebi, who died young during the civil war; Prince Ömer Çelebi; Prince Korkud Çelebi; and Prince Ibrahim Çelebi.^{[77][219][222][267][268][269][270][271][272][273][274][275][276]}

Bayezid had at least six daughters: Fatma Hundi Sultan Hatun (1375–1430), who married the Sufi scholar Emir Sultan (Seyyid Şemseddin Mehmed Buhari) in 1390 and bore four sons and twin daughters; Erhundi Hatun, who married Yakub Bey, son of Pars Bey, in 1406, and was proposed in marriage in 1393 to King Ladislaus of Naples until negotiations lapsed over demands for her conversion to Christianity; Öruz Hatun, daughter of Olivera Despina, who was married in 1403 to Abu Bakr Mirza, son of Miran Shah and grandson of Timur; Paşa Melek Hatun, also daughter of Olivera Despina, who was married in 1403 to Şemseddin Mehmed, son of Timur's general Celaleddin Islam; Fatma Hatun (1393–1417), who was sent as a hostage to Constantinople in 1403 and later married an Ottoman sanjak-bey in 1413; and an unnamed daughter who was also married into the Timurid court.^{[277][278][279][280][281][282][283][284][285][286]}

Cultural depictions

Bayezid's defeat and captivity became a prominent subject in Western European literature, drama, and opera, where historical events were romanticized through orientalist depictions.^[287][288] Christopher Marlowe's two-part play Tamburlaine the Great, first staged in London in 1587, dramatized Bayezid's capture and portrayed him enclosed in a cage and used as a mounting block by Timur.^[288] In 1648, the French playwright Jean Magnon produced the tragedy Le Gran Tamerlan et Bejezet in London.^[287] Nicholas Rowe staged the tragedy Tamerlane in London in 1701.^[288] The story was adapted for the operatic stage in George Frideric Handel's Tamerlano, first performed and published in London in 1725, and in Antonio Vivaldi's opera Bajazet, written in 1735.^{[287][289][290]} In both Handel's and Vivaldi's renditions, the narrative incorporates fictional romances involving Bayezid's daughter Asteria and a Byzantine prince.^[287]

In visual art, a cycle of paintings depicting Bayezid's captivity was executed in the 1670s at Schloss Eggenberg near Graz, Austria, shortly before the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683.^[289][290] Stanisław Chlebowski produced the oil painting Sultan Bayezid Prisoner of Timur in 1878, which is preserved in the Lviv National Art Gallery in Ukraine. The Austrian artist Peter Johann Nepomuk Geiger made illustrations for Joseph von Bülow's popular history Memorabilien aus der Europäischen Geschichte, published in 1860, and one of his pictures shows Bayezid locked in an iron cage. In modern historical fiction, Bayezid appears in Harold Lamb's novel The Grand Cham (1921), in Robert E. Howard's story Lord of Samarcand, where Bayezid commits suicide at Timur's victory feast, and in James Heneage's The Walls of Byzantium (2013).^{[291][292][293][294]}

In modern media and institutions, Bayezid was portrayed by Branislav Lečić in the Serbian film Battle of Kosovo (1989), by Ion Ritiu in the Romanian film Mircea (1989), and by Ivan Jevtović in the Serbian production The Path Strown with Roses (2013). In higher education and military institutions, Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University in Turkey is named in his honor, and the Pakistan Army's Special Services Group maintains a commando unit designated as the Yıldırım Battalion.

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